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University of Californie 


FROM THE LIBRARY OF 


DR. FRANCIS LIEBER, 
Professor of Histosrend Law in Columbia College, New Yo 


Ϊ 


THE GIFT OF b ; 
MICHAEL REESE, | 
Of San Francisco. 
L1e73. 


. Dean’s Stereotype E:aition. 
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¢ Ἢ : 
ἘΨΕΜΕΝΤΒ 


GREEK GRAMMAR, 
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R. VALPY, D.D. F.A.S. 


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7 tyre ADDITIONS. 
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} BY 
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"ΠΟ ANTHON, 
JAY PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE, 
, NEW-YORK. 


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TWELFTH EDIT 


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NEW-YORK: 
W. E. DEAN, PRINTER & PUBLISH ER, 2 ANN 51. 


4 ᾿υμοχ Bye puma sioymeg on fo unig puma 
4 ayn fo 2fo sysaig ayy ur ‘NVEC Ἢ “ΔᾺ fig hy oe τ paupungeyl 145207 
= punsnoy., “0 “τῇ IY) Ut ‘ssaLFU0D for —e paLaqugy 


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2 ἣν . ΕἸ 
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3 ‘ . 
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ae 
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ae ψκν τ; tA “ X 
᾿ 
ey εις > αὐτῷ ἐν Oe? cee ayo vr ᾽ 
ee ae a ΡΒ Δ iy Pima 4 ᾽ λα 


oeadiie κὰν 


TO 


WILLIAM SAMPSON, Esa., 


THE ENLIGHTENED ADVOCATE AND ACCOMPLISHED SCIIOLAR, 


Chis Tork 


IS RESPECTFULLY AND SINCERELY DEDICATED, 


BY HIS FRIEND 


THE EDITOR. 


ἽΝ ] 


PREFACE. 


Tue plan pursued by the Editor in enlarging the Greek 
Grammar of Dr. Valpy has been, to make such additions 
and improvements as might render the volume a more com- 
plete manual for the student, not only previous to, but also 
during a portion, at least, of his Collegiate career. In order 
to accomplish this end, it has been the Editor’s endeavour to 
bring together, in a small compass, the remarks of the latest 
and best Grammarians, on various points connected with the 
more accurate knowledge of the Greek language. The gene- 
ral features of Dr. Valpy’s work are retained, except that the 
notes are, in most instances, removed from the bottom of the 
page, and thrown into the form of observations which follow 
after the text. This has been done for the purpose of bringing 
them more immediately under the eye of the student. In using 
this Grammar, however, his attention should be first called to 
those parts of it which have an immediate bearing upon his stu- 
dies, and that, upon ἃ second and third revisal, he should be 
taken in succession over those portions which might only tend 
to embarrass him in the commencement of his career. ‘The 
result of such a mode of proceeding will be, not only to render 
his Grammar a more agreeable companion to the young Helle- 
nist, but also to give him a more systematic acquaintance with 
the language itself. 

In one or two instances some useless matter has been re- 
moved from the work, especially that part which related to the 
formation of the.Greek language, and in which the theory of 
Hemsterhuis was followed. It may be a very specious and 
plausible system, to suppose that the Greek language, in its ear- 
liest state, consisted of monosyllabic and dissyllabic words ; 
but to this supposition there are two insurmountable objections: 

1* 


vi 


it contains an ill-grounded and gratuitous assumption that the 
Greek language was original and indigenous, and it is at vari- 
ance with what we know historically of the language itself. 

Under the head of Prepositions, the Editor has taken the 
liberty of attempting to explain their uses on a new plan, which 
itis hoped may prove serviceable. 

The arrangement of the previous edition has been retained 
in the present, with the exception of the Remarks on the Tenses 
and Moods; these have been enlarged and placed at the end 
of the Syntax. 

Along with the new matter introduced into this edition will 
be found some observations on the Sanskrit language, under the 
History of the Dialects, and the admirable dissertation of 
Thiersch on the Homeric Digamma. 

Among the sources whence the principal supplies for the 
present work have been obtained, the following may be enu- 
merated. The Grammars of Matthie, Buttmann, Rost, Weller, 
Golius, and Lancelot; the Animadversions of Fischer on the 
Grammar of Weller, and the Hebrew Grammar of Professor 
Stuart of Andover. To the last of these the Editor acknow- 
ledges himself indebted for some valuable remarks in relation 
to the resemblance which exists between the letters of the 
Greek and Hebrew alphabets. 

The Editor, having received from Dr. Valpy a copy of the 
latest English edition of his Grammar, has been enabled to in- 
troduce into the present work the most recent improvements of 
that learned scholar. . 


Col. College, July, 1830. 


Accents . 
Accusative 
Active Voice 
Adjectives 
Adverbs 
Anapestic Verse 
Apostrophe .. 
ASN ἐν ES 
Syntax of 
Augment ... 
Breathings .. 
Ceesura: 6 ies 
Cases ΠΣ ἰς k's 
Change of Letters 
Comparison .. 
Conjunctions . . 
Contracted Verbs 
Contractions . . 
Dative τὺ: 
Declensions .. 
Deponents. . . 
Dialects ... 
History of 
Digamma ... 
Diphthongs . . 
Dualinov,n . . 


Etyat, to clothe one’s self 


Eipi, to be . Φ 2 
—— Dialectsof . 
Fie logo . ss 

μαι 5 2 2 e 
Φημὶ . . Ε . . 
Feet he he ee ie ἢ 


Figures affecting Syllables . 


Genitive ... 
Hiatus ΕΣ . ΓῚ e 


Homeric Digamma . 
Iambic Verse .. 
"Inut, to send . 2. « 
Iota Subscript . . 
Irregular Nouns . . 
Adjectives . 
Verbs... . 


Ἴσημι . oe . a 


hon Pe Si Ber er 
ΠΤ πρυς ἐδ st ties ἀν αν mE 
Middle Voice .... 
Remarks on 
Moods, Remarks on 
Nadded .., 
Numerals . ; 
Particles .. <; 
——— Negative 
Passive Voice . 
Patronymics : 
Prepositions 
Pronouns .. 
Prosody . . 
Stone: 5-9 aS 
ϑγαιχ τ, ρου Pf a 
General principles of 
Tenses, Signification of . . 
Formation of Active 
Passive 
Middle 
Trochaic Verse Paes ce 


ee *® © @ © © ὁ @ *# 
Oe Oe OF ECO TS +0 “Be Ss 'e 


Ι΄. τ Vee, 


ae ree δ΄ ς ete ° . . 
2} Voices, General Remarks on 


«Newer 


THE ALPHABET. 


There are twenty-four Letters in the Greek 
Language. 


Corresponding Meaning of the 
Figure. Names Power. Hobrow L Letters. Hebrew Letters. 
Aa |"Alga |Alpha fa Aleph  {Ox. 
B B66 |Birta Beta b Beth House. 
roy Πάμμα |Gamma |g4|\Gimel  |Camel. 
4 ὃ |\déhro Delta d Daleth {Door. 
Es |Eyiléy |Epsilon |é [ἔφ (unknown.) 
ZC |Zijta Zeta Ζ Zayin |Armour. 
H ἡ }Hte Eta é Hheth |Hedge. 
Θ 3 θ᾽ Θῆτα Theta jth |\Tet Serpent. 
Toe ΓϊἸῶτα [ota i Yodh Hand. 
K x [Καππὰ |Kappa_ {k Kaph Hollow hand. 
4 i |Aéu6da |Lambda || — ||Lamedh |Ox-goad. 
Mu |Mo Mu m ||Mem or 
Nv |\No Nu n Nun ish. 
He ξ st Xi x 
O ὁ [ὋὋ μικρόν |\Omicron [ὅ Ayin Eye. 
Ta [πὶ Pi p /|fPe Mouth. 
Py: (?P6@ Rho r Resh Head. 
Σ ag ἸΣίγμα |Sigma ν Samekh /Triclinium. 
Tx |Tad Tau t Tau. Cross, mark. 
Yu ΓΥΨτλόν |Upsilon ju 
Dp |G Phi ph 
X y |X Chi ch 
py | Psi ps 
Rw (Ruiya |Oméga ἰδ 


2 


Obs. 1. The Hebrew letters are here given only in part, 
and in the order of the Greek, not of the Hebrew,. alphabet. 
The object, in adding them, was to make the student acquaint- 
ed with the source whence the Greek characters are gene- 
rally supposed to have been derived. ‘The Hebrew letters 
omitted, are Vau, T’sadhe, Qoph, Shin and Sin. The first of 
these stands sixth in order in the Hebrew alphabet, and is con- 
sidered to have been the parent of the Greek digamma, which 
was generally expressed by F, a Hebrew Vau reversed and 
slightly altered. ‘The digamma was originally a letter of the 
Greek alphabet, ranked next after δ, and having a sound be- 
tween V and W. It was afterwards rejected by all but the 
Holians, as superfluous, and used only by its name Fau, as one 
mode of expressing the number 6. ‘The Hebrew letter T’sadhe 
is thought to have been the root of the Greek Sarma, which 
also, as it would seem, after having been an actual letter of the 
old Greek alphabet, was retained only as a numeral, and an- 
swered to 900. From the letter Qoph, the Greek Konze pro- 
bably took its rise, a numeral sign for 90, though originally 
perhaps a letter of the Greek alphabet also, in common with 
the preceding two. With regard to the two remaining He- 
brew characters, Shin and Sin, they were in effect but one 
letter in the more ancient Hebrew alphabet, no distinction be- 
ing then made between them in writing. From this source 
the Doric San or old Greek $ is thought to have come.—In 


_ the Latin alphabet, derived as some think from the old Greek, 


Vau is made to have passed into F’, and Kozze« into Q. 

Obs. 2. "E ψτλόν, (smooth, not aspirated) appears to have 
received this appellation to distinguish it from H, which was 
anciently the mark of the rough breathing, and was expressed 
also as a vowel by ¢.—In like manner” Y ψιλόν was so named 
to distinguish it from the “Y as one of the ancient signs of the 
digamma, since otherwise οὐ was put for v. 

Obs. 3. The old Greek alphabet is generally supposed to 
have consisted of 16 letters, viz. a, β, y, δ, δ, +, %, 4, w, ν, 0, 
mt, Q, 0, T, v, which, according to tradition, were brought by 
Cadmus from Pheenicia to Greece, and hence were called 
γράμματα Καδμήϊα or Φοινικήίϊα. ‘To these Simonides of Ceos 
is said to have added 0, ¢, φ, x, in the 6th century B. C. and 
Epicharmus the Sicilian, §, 7, y, ὦ, in the 5th century B. C. 
The number of letters, however, introduced by Cadmus, is fax 
from being clearly ascertained. ‘The oldest writers who re- 
late the story of their introduction, viz. Herodotus and Diodo- 
rus Siculus, say nothing about their number, and the accounts 
of later times disagree ; Aristotle makes 18 (Plin. N. H, 7. 56.), 


3 


another account 17 (Isidor. Orig. 1. 13.). It is highly proba- 
ble, both from these varying statements and the remarks under 
Obs. 1, that the number exceeded 16 ; nor is it at all certain that 
Cadmus first brought letters into Greece. Dunbar supposes, 
that the Greeks, while they adopted the Pheenician letters, 
did not adopt also the language of that country, but employed 
such of the letters only of their alphabet as they found neces- 
sary, and sufficient to express all the sounds they were accus- 
tomed to utter. Dunbar on the Greek and Latin Languages, p. 
9. Compare Lempriere’s Class. Dict. (Anthon’s ed.) articles, 
Cadmus, Homerus, and Pelasgi. 

Obs. 4. The Ionians, it is said, first adopted all the 24 let- 
ters, and from them the Samians, from whom they were re- 
ceived by the Athenians; but it was not until after the Pelo- 

onnesian war, under the Archonship of Euclides (Ol. 94. 2. 
δ. C. 403.) that they were used in public acts by the latter 


{ 


people. Hence the 24 letters are called also ᾿Ιωνεκὰ γράμματα, — 


and the old 16 “ττικὰ γράμματα. Before this period they 
used instead of 0, φ, χ, TH, ΠΗ, KH, (H being the mark of 
aspiration or breathing): for ¢, 4; for ξ, ΚΣ, or X2, or 
ΤΙΣ, for y, BS, or ΠΣ; for ἡ, & or 88, ὅδελος for δηλος, (Il. x’. 
446.) and for ὦ, the short 0. They also anciently expressed δὲ 
by s,andoubyo. ‘The A®olians retained the old mode of writ- 
ing. Compare Knight, on the Greek Alphabet, p. 10, &c. 
Obs. 5. The twofold mode of writing some letters is indif- 
ferently used, with the exception of o and ¢: ois only used at 
the beginning and in the middle of a word, and ¢ only at the 
end. It depends, however, upon a mere principle of Calli- 
graphy. ‘The latter is not to be confounded with ¢, called s¢i, 


stigma, sigma-tau, ἐπίσημον, or Fav, and which is used as ἃ 
numerical sign for 6. 


Letters are divided into Vowels and Conso- 
nants. 
The vowels are seven, 
Two long, ἡ; ὦ. 
Two short, 8, o. 
Three doubtful, ας v, vu. 


Obs. When a, ¢, v, are called doubtful vowels, it is not 
meant that there is, in every case, something doubtful and wa- 
vering in their nature, between long and short. Ali the sin- 
gle vowels are in certain words positively long, in others po- 
sitively short, It merely means that they are vowel signs of a 


4 


twofold nature or use, i. e. the same signs serve to denote the 
long and short quantities ; whereas the ¢ and ὁ sounds have a 
separate sign or letter. 


When two vowels are pronounced with one 
sound, they constitute a diphthong. 


Obs. 1. The sounds of, and v, being formed by the palate 
‘and lips, in the front part of the mouth, may be denominated 
front-vowels. ‘Those of a, δ, 0, being formed by the organs 
in the back part of the mouth, may be called back-vowels. 
Hence the following more accurate definition of a diphthong. 


Diphthongs are formed, when a back-vowel (a, 
é,0,) unites itself in utterance with a front-vowel 
(4, v,) producing one sound. 

Thus, 


δ. eb ὃυ 1 7 7 νυ 


0 οὐ οὐ] ὦ ὦ WU 
a ab αυ]ὰ ἃ av 


Obs. 2. The iota after the long vowel is usually placed as 
a point underneath, and is called iota subscribed. ‘Thus, as 
‘above, 7, , ¢ Hence these diphthongs are called by some 
improper diphthongs. ‘Che sound of the vowels is not affected 
by the tota subscribed, which serves only to indicate the deri- 
vation of the word. Anciently perhaps it was heard in the 
pronunciation. ‘The ancients moreover wrote the iota in the 
line ; and in capital letters this is still practised, as, THI 2 0O- 
DIAT, (1% σοφιᾳ): 16° Avy (or ἅδη). 

Obs. 3. vw is also found as a diphthong, but the + was (in 
this case) originally pronounced with an aspirate similar to 
W (digamma); 6. g. υἱός was pronounced whios ; μεμαυῖα, me- 
mawhia; vt, consequently, was not, properly speaking, a diph- 
thong. τι | 

Οἷς. 4. With regard to the change of the Greek diphthongs 
into the corresponding forms of the Latin language, it is to be 
observed that the usage of the latter language is not always 
uniform: -4:, for example, sometimes becomes ὦ in Latin, as 
"Μοῦσαι, Muse ; and sometimes, though more rarely, αὐ or a, 
as Mula, Maia, or Maja. This irregularity, however, is par- 
ticularly apparent in the case of δι, as ᾿Ιφιγένεια, Iphigenia ; 
Μήδεια, Medea, &c. it being changed in the former into the long 


5 


t, and in the latter into the long e. These deviations, in the 
case of ει, may be accounted for by supposing, that εὖ was pro- 
nounced, according to the custom of the more ancient Greeks, 
like εἴ separately, yet in one syllable ; so that, according to 
the different dialects, sometimes 8, sometimes ὁ had the lead- 
ing sound.—As to the remaining diphthongs, οὐ becomes in 
Latin, oe, and ov the long τι, as, Βοιωτία, Boeotia; Θρασύθδουλος, 
Thrasybilus—A few diphthongal forms in ove remain unchang- 
ed when written in Latin, except that the ὁ passes into 7 ac- 
cording to Latin usage, as Τροία, Troja.. 

Obs. 5. When two vowels, which generally coalesce into 
a diphthong, retain their separate sounds, two dots are placed 
over the latter vowel, and form a dieresis, as Gimvog. 


Of the seventeen Consonants, nine are mutes, 


and are divided into ee | 2 
ΤΥ ΝΟ» ὁ ΠΥ hat 
Three middle, B, 7, δ, 
Three aspirate, φ, Z, 6. 


Each soft mute has its corresponding middle 
and aspirate, into each of which it is frequently 
changed ; thus π᾿ has β for its middle, and » for 
its aspirate. These are called Cognate Letters. 


Obs..1. The soft consonants are so termed because they 
are uttered without any perceptible breathing. ‘The conso- 
nants φ, 7, 9, are the most strongly aspirated, for which rea- 
son they are called aspirate. Between these two classes, as 
to the strength of the aspirate, are found 8, y, 6, and are hence - 
denominated middle. 

Obs. 2. When two mutes come together, they must be both, 
either soft, middle, or aspirate; as, τέτυπται, not τέτυφται; 
δτυφθην, not ἐτύπθην. 


Four are Liquids, λ, u, v, 9, to which some add 
the simple sibilant o. 


Obs. 1. Liquids are so called because they readily unite 
with other consonants, and glide into their sounds. They 
are also termed semivowels, as forming, by their humming or 
sibilant sounds, a transition to the articulate sound of the 
vowels. 


2 


6 
Three are double letters, viz. 6, μὲ w, and are 
formed by the union of o with the mutes : thus, 
τς; ὃς, ὃς, form ζ. 
“uC, YS, XS, form 6. 
7S, BS, ps, form ψ. 
Hence when these letters are thus joined, the 
double letter is substituted ; as“ _doay for” Agaé- 
σι, from” Aogaw ; λέξω, for λέγσω, from λέγω ; 


πλέξω for ἡγε δὼ from πλέχω ; αλείψω for αλείφ- 
ow, from αλείφω. 


Obs. 1. The ®olians never used the double consonants, 
but the corresponding simple letters, as αἶπσα for αἶψα, ὑποσ- 
- δεύκσασα for ὑποζεύξασα. Inexpressing ¢ they made use of 0d, 
a form which was also retained by the Dorians. Some gram- 
marians maintain that the letter ¢ should always be consider- 
64 85 standing for od: and not for ὃς. 'Theggound of ¢, which 
was that of a soft s, favours this idea. 

Obs. 2. The double letters are not used for the corres- 
ponding simple ones, when the two simple letters belong to 
two different parts of a compound word; as éxoetw, not ἐξ εύω. 
Yet ᾿“θήναζε is used instead of ᾿Αϑήνασδε. 


The simple letters are divided, according to 
the organs with which they are pronounced, into 
Labials, 8; μ, 2, 9, Ψ. 
Linguals, ὃ, ¢, 6, A, ν, Q, 0, τ. 
Palatics, y, %, &, z. 


T before y, x, ἕν z, has the sound of NG; thus 
ἄγγελος is pronounced ἄνγελος, like 5 in angle. 


No genuine Greek form terminates in any consonant except 
o, ¥, 9, for those which end in § and y are to be considered as 
terminating in xs and 2s. The only exceptions to this remark 
are ἐκ, οὐκ, and οὐχ, and these never occur at the end of a clause. 


BREATHINGS. 


To the written characters belong also the spr- 
vitus or breathings, of which there are two, the 


7 


soft (spiritus lenis, πνεῦμα ψιλόν,) and the rough 
or aspirate (spiritus asper, πνεῦμα δασύ). Oneot 
these breathings is placed over every vowel or 
diphthong beginning a word. | 

The aspirate is equivalent in pronunciation to 
the English H, as ὅτι, hott; οὗτος, houtos, 

Υ and ὁ at the beginning of a word have al- 
ways the aspirate. Iftwo @ come together, the 
former has the soft, the latter the aspirate ; as, 
ἔθῥεον, aGontos, Πύῤῥος. | 


Obs. 1. In diphthongs which begin a word, the breathing 
is placed over the second vowel, as Εὐριπίδης, οἷος. ‘This, 
however, is not the case with the tmproper diphthongs, as’ Aidys, 
ἅδης. 

Obs.2. Anciently H was the mark for the aspirate in Greek, 
as it is in the Latin: thus ΠΕ ΚΑ͂ ΤΟΙ͂Ν was written for ὅκατόν.. 
This was afterwards divided, and one half F used as the mark 
for the aspirate, the other 1 as the mark for the soft breath- 
ing. This form was afterwards simplified into [, and _| ; and 
lastly rounded into the present shape, (“)and(’). Both the 
F and the H or F seem, according to Knight, to have been 
dropt from the Greek Alphabet, nearly at the same time, pro- 
bably about the period of the Persian war. ‘The first figure of 
the latter was, however, retained to represent the double or 
long E, and the former seems to have continued in use in ~ 
particular places, where a fondness for the ancient dialects 
prevailed, even to the final subversion of the Greek republics 
by the Roman arms. Knight on the Greek Alphabet, p. 12. 

Obs. 3. All words which begin with a vowel,. but are not 
pronounced with the rough breathing, have, or are supposed 
to have, the soft breathing over their initial letter; because 
every word that begins with a vowel can be distinguished in 
the pronunciation by no other means from the preceding let- 
ters than by drawing the breath from the lungs with a mode- 
rate effort. ‘The spiritus lenis therefore has an actual force, 
and is, in fact, the oriental aleph. ‘The ancients were the ra- 
ther led to denote it as they wrote in general without a division 
of words. ; 

Obs. 4. The ancient Greek language appears to have had 
no spiritus asper, at least the AZolians were without it.; and in 
the Ionic. dialect, like all other aspirates, it rarely occurs. 
Hence ἄλτο from GMouas, txusvos from ἱκρέομαι, ἠέλιος for ἥλιος. 


8 


But the ancients pronounced every word which began with a 
vowel with a peculiar species of aspirate, which had a sound 
between our v and w, and was often expressed by β or v, and 
alsoy. For this the figure of a double J was invented (F), 
whence the name digamma ; which was called olic, because 
the /Zolians, who of all the tribes retained the greatest traces 
of the old language, kept this letter in use among them after 
the other dialects-had laid it aside. Thus the Afolians wrote 
Foivos, Feléa, whence vinum, Velia, in Latin, (for the Latins 
expressed this digamma by a V); so also ναὸς, navis; oF uc, 
ovis; «Fy, evum, &c. A more enlarged account of the 
Digamma, by Thiersch, will be found under Appendix A. In 
the mean time it may be as well to remark, that Dr. Burgess, 
formerly Bishop of St. David’s, in a letter to the late Bishop 
of Durham, maintains that the Digamma was originally no 
other than two Vaus, one placed on the other. A Letter to the 
Lord Bishop of Durham, &c. 10, seqq. 


Change and Omission of Letters for the sake of 
Euphony. 


Gen. Obs. The great principle which pervades the Greek 
language is strict attention to Euphony, and an endeavour to 
avoid the concurrence of consonants which were difficult to 
be pronounced together, or of different kinds, as well as the 
meeting of two vowels of separate pronunciation. Hence 
result the following rules : 


Rute 1. Three consonants, or one with adou- 
ble consonant, can never (except in the case of 
composition like δύσφδαρτος, ἔχπτωσις, ἐχκψύχω,) 
stand together, unless the first or last be a liquid 
or y before y, x, 7; as πεμφϑδείς, σκλήῆρος, τέγξω. 


Rute 2. As in some instances the concur- 
rence even of two consonants may produce 
roughness, this is avoided in two ways. 1. By 
the introduction of a third consonant, as uweonu- 
βρέα for μεσημρία, ἀνδρός for aveds. 2. By the 
transposition of a consonant, as ἔπραθον for 
ἔπαρϑον, from πέρθω ; κραδία for καρδία. 


ϑ 


Nore. In μεσημθρία, the letter 6 appears to supply the 
place of an aspirate: so yau6gdc for γαμερὸςς. (Knight on the 
Greek Alphabet, ». 7. Lennep. Analog. Gree. p. 286.) In 
ἀνδρός, the δ is inserted after the », being of the same class 
with it, viz. a lingual. 


Rute 3. In the concurrence, of two or more 
consonants, those only which are of the same 
class are put together. Hence an aspirated con- 
‘sonant is joined to an aspirate, a middle to a 
middle, a smooth to a smooth; as ᾿φθίνω, ἄχθδος, 
βδελυρός, ἑπτά, νυχτὸς. When, in the forma- 
tion of words, therefore, two dissimilar conso- 
nants come together, the first generally assumes 
the properties of: the second. Thus, by adding 
the terminations cdc, δήν, deic, are formed, from’ 
γράφω, yoamtoc, and ,γράξδην, and from ane. 
σιλεχθείς. 


Obs. 1. In the case, however, of two like mutes already 
combined, one alone cannot be changed, but always both to- 
gether. Thus, from ἑπτά, is formed é6dou0c; from ὀκτώ, 
ὄγδοος ; from émté and ἡμέρα, ἑφθήμερος. ‘The preposition ἐκ 
alone remains unaltered before all consonants, as Se or, 
ἐκθεῖναι, ἐκδοῦναι. Before a vowel it is changed into ἐξ, as 
ἐξαίρετος, from ἐκ and aigéw. 

Obs. ὦ. If two words stand together, the second of which 
begins with an aspirated vowel and the first ends with a soft 
one; or, if the final vowel of the first word is rejected and the 
second begins with an aspirated vowel ; in both of these cases 
the mute which precedes the second word becomes an aspirate, 
as ody ἵνα, οὐχ ὅπως, ἀφ᾽ οὗ, ἀνθ᾽ ὧν. So also in the crasis 
θοιμάτιον for τὸ ἱμάτιον, θάτερον for τὸ ἕτερον. The soft mute 
before the aspirate thus introduced, becomes an aspirate itself 
in conformity with the rule ; as, γύχθ᾽ ὑπὸ, for γύκτα ὑπό. 


Rurse 4. ‘Two successive syllables very sel- 
dom begin each with an aspirate. Whenever 
two syllables, immediately following each other, 
would, according to their peculiar derivation, or 


the original form of the word, begin each with 
9 | 


10 


an aspirate, the first aspirate is changed, with a 
few exceptions, into a lems. 'Thus, ὀρέξ, τριχός, 
not dguzos ; πεφίληκα, not φεφίληκα ; τρέχω, not 
ὀρέχω ; τρέφω, not θρέφω. In these last two verbs, 
the aspirate enters again, however, in the first 
syllable of the future, the second aspirate being 
lost, as, δρέξω, θρέψω. ᾿ 


Obs. 1. There are five exceptions to this rule. 1. In com- 
pound words ; as ὀργιθοθήρας, ἀνθοφόρος ; (though sometimes 
in this case also the first aspirate is changed, as ἐκεχειρία from 
ἔχω and χείρ ; ἐπαφή, ἄπεφθος ; for ἐφάφή, ἄφεφθος, from ἁφή, 
ἑφθός). 2. The passive ending in 67», with its derivatives ; 
as ἐχύθην, ἀφέθην, ὠρθώθην ; (excepting two verbs only, θύω and 
τίθημι, which form ἐτύθην, and ἐτέθην). 3. If a consonant, 
whether rough or smooth, immediately precede the second 
aspirate ; as θρεφθεὶς, θαλῳθεὶς, ἐθέλχθην, τίθεσθαι. 4. If the 
second, by changing the lenis before a rough breathing, be- 
comes an aspirate ; as ἔθηχ᾽ ὁ ἄνθρωπος. 5. By affixing the 
adverbial terminations θεν and θὲ; as πανταχόθεν, Kogir O00, 

Obs. 2. The second of two aspirates is seldom thus chang- 
ed: it is regularly done, however, in imperatives in θὲ ; as θέτι, 
τύφθητι ; for 0861, τύφθηθι. ere 

Obs. 3. This rule, perhaps, extended not only to the aspi- 
rated letters, but also to the rough breathing, which it turned 
into the smooth. But one solitary trace, however, remains of 
this, viz. in the verb ἔχω, which has ἕξω in the future, and 
should properly have ἔχω in the present, but the rough breath- 
ing is changed into the smooth on account of the following χ, 
an aspirate. 


Rute 5. The aspirates are never doubled, but, 
instead thereof, an aspirate must be preceded by 
the kindred mute; as ’Azcéic, not ’?Ad6ic; Baxzoc, 
not Βάχχος ; Ματθαῖος, not Madéatog ; Langu, 
not Σ: ͵αφφώ. 

~Ruze 6, When 6 stands at the beginning of a 
word, if a simple vowel be made to precede it in 
composition or inflection, the ὁ is usually dou- 
bled ; as ἔῤῥεπον, ἀῤῥεπης, from ῥέπω ; περίῤῥοος 
from περί and ῥέω. This rule, however, does not 


11 


εὖ and eek 


ἶ 


RvuLeE 7. ν is changed 1 to . 
7, before 7, x, S$ Library, ν᾿ 
into uw, before β, u, 
into A, 9, o, before A, Q, Os California, 7 
Thus, ἐγγράφω for ἐ ἐνγράφω ; ‘baba for ἐνξαί- 
YO ; συλλαμξάνω for συνλαμβάνω: συῤῥέω for συν- 
ῥέω: συσκχκευάζω for συνσκευάζω. Except πέφαν- 
σαι (2. pers. perf. pass. οἵ φαίνω), ἕλμιγς, 
πέπανσις, and a few others. It remains unalter- 
ed in general only before ὃ, 6, τ. 


Obs. The preposition δ», before 9, 9, and ¢, remains un- 
changed ; as ἔνρυθμος, avoitées, ἐνσείω, ἐνζέομαι. But in σὺν, 
when followed by two consonants or ¢, the » is thrown out ; 
as σύστημα. In πάλιν, however, in the same case, the » is re- 
tained, as παλίνσκιος, or also, παλίσκιος. 


Rute 8. Before w, the labials 6, wu, x, φ, w, 
are changed into μ; a8 λέλειμμαι for λέλειπμαι ; 
τέτυμμαι for τέτυπμαι. Before the same letter, 
x and χ are changed into y, as λέλεγμαι for λέ- 
λεχμαι; δέδογμαι for Ogédoxuce; and the — 
0; 6, τς C, mto o. 


Obs. The following are exceptions, ἀκμὴ, ἀϑύμοξ, ἔδμων, 
κεκορυθμένος, πότμος. : 


Rutz 9. The linguals 0, ὃ t, ζ, can only tata 
before 2, u,v, Q. ‘They are dropped before o. 
Thus πόδεσι, ποδσὶ, ποσί, from ποῦς: TAT Oo, 
πλήδσω, πλήσω ; σωμάτεσι, σωμάτσι; σωμάσι, from 
σῶμα. So also, ἁρπάσω for ἁρπαζέσω. 


Rute 10. .ν is dropped before ¢ and o in de- 
clension, and also in the preposition σὺν ; (Rule 
7. Obs.) as μῆνες, μήνεσι, μηνσί, μησί ; συζῆν. for 


12 
συνζῇν 5 συζητέω for συνζητέω. When this takes 
place, the syllable preceding ¢ and o is long. 


Obs. 1. The preposition ἐν remains unchanged, and the ad- 
verb πάλιν, as noticed in the Obs. to Rule 7. 

Obs. 2. If, after the rejection of » before o, only « or ὁ re- 
mains, then ες is changed into δες, ος into ους, and the short « is 
made long. ‘Thus, the present participle of τίθημι is properly 
τιθένς, which the Polians retained, and which becomes, after 
the rejection of » and the changing of ¢ into δι, τιθεὶς. So the 
present participle of δίδωμι is διδὸνς, whence comes by reject- 
ing » and changing o into ov, διδοὺς, And lastly, τύψας, στάς, 
and other participles of this termination, come from forms in 
avo; as τύψανς, στάνς, and have the « long. ‘The same re- 
marks will apply to verbs, nouns, and adjectives. ‘Thus, from 
the verb σπένδω comes the future σπένδεσω, contracted into 
onévow, and changed by the operation of the rule into σπείσω ; 
from ὀδόνς comes ddots; from yaglers, χαρίεις ; from ἅπανς, 
ἅπας. Thus, too, the AXolians and Dorians said, instead of 
τύψανς, ποιήσανς, having rejected the », τύψαις, ποιήσαις. The 
ν which appears in the genitive, proves -conclusively that the 
same letter entered originally into the form of the nominative. 
The Latins in their present participles active retain this old 
form, as docens, amans, &c. 


OF THE HIATUS. 


Gen. Obs. A word which ends with a vowel, followed by 
another which begins with a vowel, produces what is termed 
an Hiatus. The Attics endeavoured to avoid such a concur- 
rence of vowel-sounds much more anxiously than the other 
Greeks, and among the Attics the Poets were much more atten- 
tive to this than the prose writers. ‘The Jonians, on the con- 
trary, who were not offended at the concurrence of two or more 
vowels, seldom made use of any means to prevent such an Hza- 
tus, and only in poetry. In Homer the » ἐφελκυστικόν occurs 
nearly regularly, in Herodotus not at all. But nevertheless 
many instances of Hiatus occur in Homer; to remove the 
most offensive of which, recourse is had to the Digamma. 
(vid. Appendix, A.) | 

The Attics, in order to avoid Hiatus, employed three modes : 
1. The addition of » to the end of a word. 2. Apostrophe. 
3. Contractions. | ; 


13 


τ ἐφελχυστιχόν. 


ν εφελκυστικον is added to datives plural in σι, 
and consequently in & and we, to the third person 
of verbs in ὃ or t, to the word éixoou (twenty), 
and.to the adverbs πέρυσι, παντάπασι, νόσφι, 
πρόσδε, ὄπισθε, xe, νυ, When the following word 
begins with a vowel; as ἐν μησὶν ὀλίγοις, πᾶσιν 
εἶπεν ἐχεῖνοις, ETUWEY αὐτόν, ἐΐκοσιν ἔτη γεγονώς, 


&c. 


Obs. 1. The Ionians and Attics also affixed a » to the diph- 
thong ὃν in the third person sing. plusq. perf. active. 

Obs. 2. It is denominated by the Grammarians » ἐφελκυστι- 
κὸν, because it draws or attracts the second vowel to the first. 
The datives ἡμῖν, ὑμῖν, have it also, they being contracted from 
ἡμέσι, ὑμέσι. — 

Obs. 8. The » ἐφελκυστικὸν is also applied to the termina- 
tions in ov, expressing a place, which are formed from datives 
plural; as Πλαταιάσιν,᾽ Ολυμπιάσιν. 

Obs. 4. The letter σ is sometimes inserted on the same 
principle with the »; as οὕτω before a consonant, οὕτως before 
a vowel; so also ἄχρι, ἄχρις ; μέχρι, μέχρις ; ἀτρέμα, ἀτρέ- 
μας. 

Obs. 5. The same remark will apply to the negative οὐ, 
which retains this form before a consonant, but has οὐκ before 
a vowel, and consequently οὐχ before an aspirate. The x in 
οὐκ, however, is dropped at every pause, even when the next 
sentence begins with a vowel, since no Greek word by itself 
can terminate in *: as Od: ἀλλ᾽ ὅταν. 

Obs. 6. The Ionians omit this v even before a vowel; on 
the other hand, the poets use it before a consonant to effect 
a position for the preceding vowel. ‘This is also sometimes 
done in Attic prose, and at the end of a sentence it is rarely 
omitted. (Upon this whole subject, however, see Buttman’s 
Ausfirliche Griech. Sprachl. § 26. anm. 2. who denies, in op- 
position to other Grammarians, that the » spedx. is ever used 
to prevent an hiatus). 


2.—APOSTROPHE. 


Apostrophe is the turning away, or rejecting, 


14 


of the final vowel of a word, when the next word 
begins with a vowel, as πᾶντ᾽ ἔλεγεν for πάντα 
ἔλεγεν, δι᾽ ὧν for διὰ ὧν. 

When an apostrophe takes place, a lenis before 
an aspirate is changed into its corresponding as- 
pirate: thus, for ἀπὸ οὗ, ἀπ᾽ οὗ is changed into 
ἔμ᾽ OU cic) | 

Apostrophe in general removes the short final 
vowels, ας e,4,0. The following, however, are 
exceptions: 1. The o in πρὸ is not cut off, but 
in certain cases coalesces with the following 
vowel. 2. Thez in περὶ 15 not cut off except in 
the Molic dialect. 3. Thez in ὅτι is not cut off; 
since, if this were done, ὅτ᾽ might be confounded 
with ὅτε, and ὅθ᾽ with 66. 4. The ¢ is rarely 
cut off in the dative singular and plural of the 
third declension. | 


Obs. 1. Not only short vowels, but diphthongs also, are 
elided ; not indiscriminately however, for 1. They are not 
elided in the infinitive of the perfects active and passive, nor in 
that of the aorists passive, neither are they elided in the 3d. 
person singular of the optative, nor in the nominative plural 
of nouns. 2. Diphthongs are not elided by the Attic poets 
before short vowels. 3. Diphthongs are rarely, if ever, elided 
in prose. ; 

Obs. 2. The Attics and Dorians use the apostrophe, in final 
long syllables, on the short vowels-of the following word ; as 
σοῦ ot for ποῦ ἔστιν ; & ᾽γαθέ for ὦ ἀγαθέ. ‘The poets reject 
also from the diphthong, with which a word begins, the first 
short vowel, when the preceding word ends with a vowel, as 
ἡ ὑσέδεια for ἡ εὐσέδεια, @ υρίπιδὴ for ὦ Εὐρίπιδη. 

Obs. 8. For farther remarks on Apostrophe, vid. Appen- 
dix, B. 

3.—CONTRACTIONS. 


Contractions are chiefly used by the Attics, the characte- 
ristic difference between the Attic and Jonic dialects being 
this, that the former delights in contractions, whereas the 
latter in most instances avoids them, and is fond of a concur- 
rence of vowel sounds. " 


ςς 


15 


Contractions are of two kinds, proper and im- 
proper, or,as they are otherwise termed, Synere- 
sis and Crasis. 

A proper contraction, or Syneresis, is when 
two single vowels are contracted without change 
into one diphthong, as τείχεϊ contracted into tei- 
χει, from τείχος, a wall, ἐν 

An improper contraction, or Crasis, is when a 
vowel or diphthong of different sounds is substi- 
tuted, as τείχεος, contracted into τείχους, τείχεα 
contracted into τείχη. 


Obs. 1. A syllable contracted by Crasis has commonly a 
mark (’) placed as a sign over it, as ταὐτὰ for τὰ αὐτὰ, Todvay- 
tlov for τὸ ἐναντίον. 

Obs. 2. The subscribed is only used when, beside the 
contraction, the + is still found in the last of the two contracted 
syllables; as κάτα for καὶ eita; ἐγῴδα for ἐγὼ οἶδα. Hence 
name for καὶ ἐπὶ, not κᾷπι ; κἄρετη, for καὶ ἀρετὴ; not κᾷἄρετη. 

Obs. 3. Among the instances of Crasis which are of com- 
mon occurrence, besides those already mentioned, the follow- 
ing may be enumerated. Tovvoue for τὸ ὄνομα, τἀμά for τὰ 
ἐμὰ, ἐγῴμαν for ἔγω οἶμαι, θουιμάτιον for τὸ ἱμάτιον, οὕνεκα for οὗ 
ἕνεκα, προὔτρεψεν for προδτρέψδν, κακοῦργος for xaxosgyoc, 
τοὐμὸν for τὸ ἐμὸν, ᾧ ἔγθρωπον for οἱ ἄνθρωποι, 7 ὅπως for καὺ 
ὅπως, x Gates for καὶ ὅστις, κἀκεῖνος for καὶ ἐκεῖνος. 

Obs. 4. For farther particulars respecting contractions, 
vid. Appendix, C. 


Of Figures affecting Syllables. 


1. Prosthésis is the adding of one or more letters to the 
beginning of a word, as σμικρὸς for μικρός, ἐείκοσιν for εἵκοσι. 

2. Paragdge is the adding of one or more letters to the end 
of a word, as ἦσθα for ἧς, τοῖσι for τοῖς. 

3. Epenthésis is the insertion of one or more letters in the 
body of a word, as @da6e for ἔλαδε, ὁππότερος for ὁπότερος. 

4. Syncope is the taking away of one or more letters from 
the body of a word, as ἦλθον for ἤλυθον, sigduny for εὐὑρησάμην. 

5. Apherésis is the cutting off of one or more letters from 
the beginning of a word, as στεροπὴ for ἀστεροπὴ, ὁρτὴ for 
ἑορτὴ. ὲ 

6. Αροοῦρθ is the cutting off of one or more letters from 
the end of a word, as δῶ for δῶμα, Ποσειδῶ for Ποσειδῶνα 


16. 


7. Metathésis is the transposition of letters and syllables, 
as ἔπραθον for ἔπαρθον, from πέρθω ; ἔδρακον for ἔδαρκον, from 
déguw ; καρτερὸς for κρατερὸς, κάρτος for κράτος. 

Οὐδ. The lonians often, by a species of Metathesis, change 
the breathing in a word, as κιθὼν for χιτών, ἐνθαῦτα for ἐνταῦθα. 

8. Tmésis is when the parts of a compound are separated 
by an intervening word, as ὑπὲρ τινὰ ἔχειν for ὑπερέχειν τινα. 


. OF ACCENTS. 


There are three accents, the acute (’), the 
grave (7); and the circumflex (~). 

The acute is placed on one of the three last 
syllables of a word. ᾿ 
_ The grave is never placed but on the last syl- 
lable. | . 

The circumflex is placed on a long vowel ora 
diphthong in one of the two last syllables. 


Obs. 1. The circumflex was first marked *, then ~, and last- 
iy. 
% Obs. 2. The acute is called in Greek ὀξεῖα (προσῳδία, ac- 
cent, being understood) ; the grave is styled βαρεῖα ; the cir- 
cumflex περισπωμένγη, that is, wound about. 

Obs. 3. In accentuation, words are called, in Greek, 

1. ᾽Οξύτονα, which have the acute (ὀξὺς τόνος) on the last 
‘syllable ; as θεός. 

2. Παροξύτονα, which have it on the penultima ; as retuu- 
μένος. 

3. Προπαροξύτονα, which have it on the antepenultima ; as 
ἄνθρωπος. ᾿ 

4. Περισπώμενα, which have the circumflex on the last syl- 
lable ; as τιμῷ, : 

5. Προπερισπώμενα, which have it on the penultima; as 
meay Ua. 

6. Bagitove, are all words which have no accent on the 
last syllable, because, according to the custom of grammari- 
ans, the syllable which is neither marked with the acute nor 
the circumflex has the grave, (βαρύν τόνον). 

Obs. 4. For a more enlarged view of the doctrine of ac- 
cents, vid. Appendix, D. . | 


MARKS OF READING. 


1. When two vowels are separated in pronunciation, and 


17 


do not constitute a diphthong, the latter of the vowels has 
two points over it, as mgoimagyw, ἀΐδης. ‘This is called Die- 
rests. 

2. Diastole or Hypodiastole is a comma put at the end of 
the compound in compound words, to distinguish it from other 
words consisting of the same letters ; as 0 te, the neuter of 
ὃς and τα, to distinguish it from ὅτε (since). So also τό, te and 
tore, 6, t and ὅτι. 

Obs. The Diastole is rendered almost useless by the art of 
printing. Many, instead of the Diastole, only leave a small 
space between the parts of the compound, as is the case in 
old MSS. and editions ; 6 te, τό te, ὅ τι. 

3. The marks of punctuation in Greek are for the most 
part the same as those in Latin, except the colon and mark of 
interrogation. ‘The colon is put at the upper part of the last 
word, as δἶπε' ‘The colon and semicolon are not distinguish- 
ed from each other. 

4, The mark of interrogation is (;), the semicolon of mo- 
dern languages. 

5. Besides these, there is a mark which shows that two 
words belong to each other, and which is called Hyphen, (ὑφ᾽ 
ἕν). This consists in a cross line placed between the words, 
as ἡ οὐ-διάλυσις. It no longer occurs, however, in editions. 

Obs. 1. The marks of reading were invented by the Alex- 
andrian Grammarians. ‘They do not occur in inscriptions, 
nor old MSS. In most of these there are no separating 
marks, in others a simple dot is put after each word, in others 
again a small space is left between the words. 

Obs. 2. The Greek denominations of the points are as fol- 
lows: 1. τελεία στιγμή, a full stop, which denotes that the 
sense is complete. 2. μέση στιλμή, points out where breath 
is to be taken. 3. ὑποστιγμή, a short pause, indicating that 
the sense is notcomplete. Nicanor the Grammarian imagined 
eight στιγμαί. 


PARTS OF SPEECH. 


There are in Greek eight species of words, 
called Parts of Speech; viz. Article, Noun, Ad- 


jective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, and 
onjunction. edt 


Obs. The Greek Grammarians in general rank Interjections 
among adverbs ; improperly, however, if we consider the ad- 
3 


18 


verbial nature, which always coincides with some verb as its 
principle, and whose meaning it qualifies. 


The first four are declined with Gender, Num- 
ber, and Case. | 

There are three Genders: Masculine, Femi- 
nine, and Neuter. 'To indicate the gender, use is 
made of the Article; ὁ for the masculine, ἡ for 
the feminine, and τὸ for the neuter; as ὁ ἀνὴρ, 
the man; ἡ γυνὴ; the woman; to ζῶον, the animal. 

Some nouns are both masculine and feminine, 
as 6, ἡ, πάπυρος, the papyrus ; 0, ἡ, κότινος, the 
wild olive-tree. ‘These are said to be of the Com- 
mon Gender. 

There are three Numbers, Singular, Dual, 
and Plural. The first speaks of one, the second 
of two or a pair, the third of more than two. 
Thus, ὁ ἀνὴρ the man, tH ἄνδρε the two men, oi 
ἄνδρες, the men. 


Obs. 1. The dual, which adds to the precision of the Greek 
language, did not exist in the oldest state of the language, 
neither was it used in the A®olic dialect, nor in the Latin. It 
is not found in the New Testament, in the Septuagint, nor in 
the Fathers. It was used most frequently by the Attics, who, 
however, often employ the plural instead of it. In the corrup- 
tion of the language by the modern Greeks, it has been omitted. 

Obs. 2. The Dual, according to Buttman, is only an old 
and shortened form of the plural, which became gradually li- 
mited in its use to an expression of the number two. Hence, 
as it was not an original form, nor actually needed, the reason 
appears why it was so often neglected and its place supplied 
by the ordinary plural. vid. Buttman’s Ausf. Griech. Sprachl. 
vol. 1. p. 135. | 

Obs. 3. The Attics in particular often put the article, the 
pronouns, and participles, in the masculine, before feminine 
nouns of the dual number ; whence some conclude, that the 
dual of these parts of speech, and of the adjective, had once 
only one form, viz. the masculine. 


There are five cases: Nomunative, Genitive, 
Dative, Accusative, and Vocative. 


19 


Obs. 1. Cases (in Greek πτώσεις, in Latin, casts), mean 
fallings. ‘The ancient Grammarians, in making the nomina- 
tive a case, proceeded on the supposition that words fell as it 
were from the mind. Hence, when a noun fell thence in its 
primary form, they called it πτώσις ὀρθή, casus rectus, a straight 
or perpendicular case or falling, and likened its form to a 
perpendicular line. ‘The variations from the first case or no- 
minative, they considered to be the same as if this line were 
to fall from its perpendicular position, and make successive 
angles with the horizon. ‘These they called πτώσεις πλάγιαι, 
casits obliqui, oblique cases or sidelong fallings. Thus, ~ 


ie 


AB is the πτώσις ὀρθή; BC, BD, BE, BF, are the πτώσδις 
πλάγιαι. Hence, Grammarians called the method of enume- 
rating the various cases of a noun, κλίσις, declinatio, or declen 
sion, it being a sort of progressive descent from the noun’s 
upright form, through its various declining or falling forms. 

Obs. 2. The Greek language has no ablative. Its place is 
supplied partly by the genitive, and partly by the dative. The 
Latins also had anciently no ablative, but instead of it the da- 
tive was used, as in Greek. At length an ablative was form- 
ed, governed by prepositions, which ceased thenceforth to be 
put before the dative. One of the most recent advocates for 
a Greek ablative is Professor Dunbar, in his work on the 
Greek and Latin Languages, p. 54. 


The Nominative and Vocative are frequently 
the same in the Singular, always in the Dual and 
Plural. | 


Obs. Even, however, where the Vocative has a separate 
form, the Nominative is often used for it, particularly by the 
Attic writers. 


The Dative singular in all three declensions 
ends inv. In the two first, however, thez is sub- 
scribed. 


Obs. The Dative plural properly in all three declensions ends 


20 


in σὺν or ot; for ag and os are only abbreviations of the more 
ancient forms oov and ovou, 


The Genitive plural ends always in wy. 


Obs. The more ancient form, however, was sy and aw», 
though not in all words. 


The Dual has only two terminations, one for 
the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative, the 
other for the Genitive and Dative. 

Neuters have the Nominative, Accusative, and 
Vocative, alike; and in the plural these cases end 
always ine. In the Dual they are the same in 
form as the masculine. 


Obs. We are not to conclude that the » was wanting in the 
dative case of the old Greek, because it is omitted in several 
inscriptions. In the case of those words where it was not 
pronounced separately, it was omitted by the Dorians and o- 
lians ; and by the stone-cutters in all dialects. Jt is consonant 
with analogy to suppose, that the termination of the dative 
case was originally uniform. ‘The very ancient datives οἰκοῖ, 
medot, were retained even in the Doric dialect. Adverbs in ὁ 
were also compounded of datives, as ἀμαχί, ἀνουκτί, and the 
like. ᾿Ενταυθοῖ and ποῖ are old datives. 


ARTICLE. 


The Article is a word prefixed to a noun and 
serving to ascertain or define it. 

There are commonly reckoned two Articles 
in Greek, the Prepositive, ὁ, ἢ; τό, and the Sub- 
junctive, ὅς, 7, 0. The latter, however, is, in fact, 
a relative pronoun, and will be treated of under 
that head. 

The Prepositive Article, or, as it should be 
more correctly styled, the Article, answers in ge- 
neral to the definite article the in English, as ὁ 
βασιλεὺς the king, ἡ γυνὴ the woman, τὸ ζῶον the 


" 21 


animal. When no article is expressed in Greek, 
the English indefinite article a or an is signified, 
as βασιλεὺς; a king; γυνὴ, a woman; ζῶον, an 
animal, 

The declension of the Article is as follows: 


“Ὁ, ἡ; τό, The. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 

M. F. N. M. F.. N. 
N. 6, 4, 16, Mick. Ἦν ΕΝ, af, Jak, 2d, 
G. τοῦ, τῆς, τοῦ, | N. A. τώ, τά, τώ. G. τῶν, τῶν», τῶν, 
D. τῷ, τῇ, τῷ, | 6. Ὁ. τοῖν, ταῖν, τοῖν, | D. τοῖς, ταῖς τοῖς, 
A. τόν, τήν, τό, ἰ A. τούς, τάς, τά. 


Obs. 1. That the appellation of ὑποτακτικὸν ἄρθρον, or sub- 
junctive article, which many of the ancient Grammarians ap- 
plied to the relative ὅς, is an improper one, appears fully from 
a remark of Apollonius. In comparing it with the agotaxt- 
κὸν ἄρθρον, or prepositive article, he not only confesses it to 
differ, as being expressed by a different word, and having a 
different place in every sentence, but in Syntax, he adds, it is 
wholly different. De Syntax. Lib. 1, c. 43. ‘Theodore Gaza 
makes a similar acknowledgment. Gramm. Introd. Lib. 4. 

Obs. 2. There is no form of the article for the vocative ; for 
ω is an interjection, ranked with the other interjections under 
adverbs ; improperly, however. vid. p. 17. 

Obs. 3. If the particles ye and Je are annexed to the article, 
it has the signification of the pronoun “ this.” ‘The declen- 
sion remains the same, ὅδε, (Att. 60), 408 (ἠδ), τόδε (10d!) ; 
τοῦδε, τῆσδε, τοῦδε, ὅξο. 

Obs. 4. In the old language the article was τός, τή, τό; 
hence the plural tov in Dorié and Ionic, and the τ in the neu- 
ter and in the oblique cases. In Homer and the other old epic 
writers, the article, with a few exceptions, is, in fact, the same 
as the demonstrative pronoun, οὗτος, this. In some passages 
a large portion of the demonstrative force is, however, lost, and 
then the use of the article approaches to that of the common 
6, 4,76. Inthe old language, the same form τός was also used 
to denote the relative pronoun ‘ which,” for which the form ὅς, 
arising from τός, after the general rejection of τ, was afterwards 
used. Hence in the Doric and Jonic writers the relative pro- 
noun often occurs under the same form with the article; as τός 
for ὅς, τή for 7, τό for 8, ὅτε. 


a2 


NOUN. 


Declensions of Nouns are three, answering to 
the first three declensions in Latin. 

The first ends in @ and ἡ; feminine ; and in ας 
and ἧς masculine. 

The second ends in og generally masculine, 
and sometimes feminine ; and oy neuter. 

The third ends in ας ἐς v, neuter ; ὦ feminine; 
Vs ξ, 0) 6) Ψ, of all genders, and increases in the 
genitive. 


Obs. 1. In the two first declensions, the termination only 
of the nominative case is changed in the oblique cases, so that 
the number of syllables remains the same. In the third, on 
the contrary, the terminations of the other cases are affixed 
to the nominative, yet with some change. Hence the two 
first declensions are called parisyllabic, the third imparisyllabic. 

Obds. 2. The old grammarians reckoned ten declensions ; 
five simple and five contracted. ‘The simple were, 1. as, ἧς. 
2. 4,7. 3. 05,0”. 4. wo, ὧν. 5, a, 0, u,¥, ἕξ, 0, 5, w.—Of 
these the four first are parisyllabic, the last is imparisyllabic. 
The contracted were, 1. 75, ες, oc. 2. ts, 4. 3. €us, us, v. 
4. ὦ, ὡς. 5. ας. These are all imparisyllabic. 


Tabular View of the Three Declensions. 


Singular. 
I. ti. III. 
Nom.a ἢ ag 7g og, Neut.oy |asvuwmviEogy 
rw ~~ 

Gen. ἂς ης ου ου ος (ως) 
Dat. «ἢ ¢ @ ὕ 
Ace. αν nv ἂν ἢν ον, a οὐ» Neut, 
Voc. α ἢ ἃ ἢ 8, Neut. ov | —like Nom. 

Dual. 
N. A. Via o 8 
G.D. aw ow ow 

Plural. 
Nom. ae ov Neut. « es Neut. a 
Gen. ὧν ov ov 
Dat. ats ous σιν or σὲ 
Acc. ας ους Νουΐ.α | ἂς Neut.a 
Voc. a op Neut.a | ὃς Neut.« 


235 


FIRST DECLENSION. 
ἡ Μοῦσα, the Muse. 


Singular. 
N. ἡ Μοῦσα 
6. τῆς Μούσης 
1). τῇ Μούση 
Α. τὴν Μοῦσαν 
Vi “Μοῦσα. 


Dual. 
N. A. V. τὰ Μούσα 


G. Ὁ. ταῖν Μούσαιν. 


Plural. 
N. αὐ Motoas 
G. τῶν Μουσῶν 
D. ταῖς Μούσαις 
A. τὰς Μούσας 
Vv. “Μοῦσαι. 


Nouns in δα, θα, ρα, and ἃ pure, (that is α fol- 
lowed by a vowel,) make the Genitive in ας, and 
the Dative in @, and the rest like Μοῦσα: thus, 


Singular. 
ἡ ἔδρα 
. τῆς ἕδρας 
. τῇ ἕδρᾳ 
τὴν ἕδραν 
ἕδρα. 


<PyOaZ 


Singular. 
N. ἡ καρδία 
6. τῆς καρδίας 
Ὦ. τῇ καρδίᾳ 
Α. τὴν καρδίαν 
Ὑ; καρδία, 


ἡ ἕδρα, the seat. 


Dual. 
N. A. Ν. τὰ ἕδρα 


G. D. ταῖν Edguy, 


Dual. 
N. A. V. τὰ καρδία 


G. Ὁ. ταῖν καρδίαιν. 


Plural. 
. αἱ ἕδραι 
. τῶν ἑδρῶν 
. ταῖς ἕδραις 
. τὰς ἕδρας 
ἕδραι 


<P YQZ 


| ἡ καρδία, the heart. 


Plural. 
N. αὖ καρδίαι 
6. τῶν καρδιῶν 
D. ταῖς καρδίαις 
Α. τὰς καρδίας 
ἊΣ καρδίαι. 


Nouns in 7 make the Accusative in ν, and the 
Vocative in , and the rest like Motvoa: thus, 


Singular. 
N. ἡ τιμή 
G. τῆς τιμῆς 
D. τῆ τιμῇ 
A. τὴν τιμήν 
Ὧ τιμή. 


Dual. 
N. A. V. τὰ τιμά 


G. D. ταῖν τιμαῖν, 


ἡ τιμὴ, the honour. 


«αὐ τιμαί 
6. τῶν τιμῶν 
Ὁ. ταῖς τιμαῖς 
Α. τὰς τιμάς 
Vv. τιμαί. 


re ΨΥ ΨΥ a ee ee) ee ee 


24 


Nouns in ας make the Genitive in ov, and the 
Dative in ᾳ, and the rest like Μοῦσα : thus, 


ὁ νεανίας, the youth. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 


N. ὁ véeavrlag Ν. οὗ = veaviae 

G. τοῦ veavlov N. A. V. τὼ νεανία | G. τῶν νεανιῶν 
D. τῷ νεανίᾳ ᾿ D. τοῖς νεανίαις 
A. τὸν νεανίαν G. D. τοῖν γεανίαιν. | A. τοὺς νεανίας 
ὟΣ γεδαγία. V. veavias 


Nouns in ἧς make the Genitive in ov, the Ac- 
cusative in ny, and the Vocative in 7, and the rest 
like Μοῦσα: thus, 


ὁ τελώνης, the publican. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 
Ν. ὁ τελώνης N. οἱ τελῶναι 
G. τοῦ τελώνου N. A. Υ. τῶ τελώνα | G. τῶν τελωνῶν 
D. τῷ τελώνῃ D. τοῖς τελώναις 
Α. τὸν τελώνην G. D. τοῖν τελώναιν. | A. τοὺς τελώνας 
V. τελώνη. ἐπ: τελῶναι, 


Observations on the First Declension. 


Obs. 1. The termination in «, which makes ας in the geni- 
tive,is generally Jong. Hence words in ἃ contracted, as ’467- 
γᾷ, μνᾶ, &c.makeas. ‘The termination in α, on the contrary, 
which has y¢ in the genitive, is always short. The vocative 
in « of masculines in ας is long, of those in ἧς short. The 
Dual termination in ἃ is always long. 

Obs. 2. From the genitive in ας is derived the ancient ge- 
nitive of the first declension of Latin nouns, as paterfamilias, 
materfamilias. 'The Dorians said μούσας for μούσης ; and the 
fHolians, adding an ὁ to it, made it μοῦσαις, from which the 
Latins, cutting off the S, have taken musai or muse in the ge- 
nitive. So also the Molians said μέλαις for μέλας, τάλαις for 
τάλας. Etym. M. p. 575, 1.53. Maittaire Dial. p. 208. ed. 
Sturz. From the Dative in a or q, is formed the Latin Da- 
tive ing. The similarity between the Accusative in αν and 
the Latin am, is obvious. 

Obs. 4. Some nouns in ας make the genitive in ἃ as well as 
in ov; as Πυθαγόρας, G. — ov, and — α ; πατραλοίας. G. — ov, 


20 


and —«. Some keep a@ exclusively; as Θωμᾶς, G. Θωμᾶ; 
Βοῤῥᾶς, G. Βοῤῥᾶ; Σατανᾶς, G. Σατανᾶ; πάππας, G. πάππα. 
The genitives in « were the Doric form. ‘The Doric form for 
the genitive singular is formed by contraction from the oldest 
form of the genitive singular of masculines in ας, viz. from ao. 
Hence it is always long. ‘This Doric genitive, in some few 
words, particularly proper names, remained in common use, 
as ’Avvibac, Hannibal, G. 106’ Avvibau; Σουΐδας, G. τοῦ Σουΐδα; 
Τωθρύας, G. τοῦ Τωδρύα. 

Obs. 4. The Attic form ov for the genitive, comes by con- 
traction from the old loni¢c form ew, which is itself deduced 
by some Grammarians from the still older Doric form ao, 
Others, however, maintain that there was anciently a double 
form for the genitive singular, viz. «o and ew, each distinct’ 
from the other, and that eo remained in Doric, while δὼ was 
retained in Ionic. They both occur in Homer, Il. φ΄. 85 
and 86. ΄ 

Obs. 5. Two opinions are likewise maintained respecting 
the form of the genitive plural ; one, that the genitive plural 
of all endings was anciently ew, contracted by the Dorians 
into the circumflexed ἂν, and changed by the Ionians into ewr; 
the other, that anciently two forms for the genitive plural were 
used, ew» and ewv, both of which occur in Homer, and hence 
were both used in the old Ionic, and that the first of these 
was subsequently retained by the A‘volo-Doric, while the lat- 
ter alone remained in use in the Ionic—From the Ionic δὼν 
comes by contraction the Attic circumflexed ὧν, 

Obs. 6. The terminations ἧς and ας were ἃ in A®olic, and 
also in the old language of Homer, as Θυέστα, untéta, νεφελη- 
γερέτα, δὐρυόπα. Hence in Latin, cometa, planeta, poeta, from 
κομήτης, πλανήτης, ποιητής, and hence the Latins regularly 
changed the Greek names in ας into α ; and the Greeks, on 
the other hand, turned the Roman names in ἃ into ας, as Σύλ- 
hac, Γάλθας, Κατιλίνας. 

Obs. 7. Of Nouns in ἧς of the first declension, the follow- 
ing make the Vocative in ἃ: Nouns in τῆς ; compounds in 
πῆς, as κυνώπης ; Nouns in ἧς derived from uete@, πωλῶ, τρίδω; 
as γεωμέτρης, μυροπώλης, παιδοτρίθης ; or denoting nations, as 
ITégons, Persian, V. Περσα ; but Πέρσης, the name of a man, 
Πέρση: λάγνης, μεναίχμης, πυραίχμης also make «, But Aiy- 
της, αἰναρέτης, παλλιλαμπὲτης make 7. Nouns in στῆς make « 
and’ 7. } 

ἢ Obs. 8. With regard to the dialects it may be observed, 
that the Dorians in all the terminations use « long for ἢ, as 
τιμά, ἃς, ᾷ, ἀν. The Ionians, on the contrary, change « into 


26 


7 after a vowel or the letter 6, as σοφίη, 7s, ἡ, ἢν. μάχαιρα, 
7s, ἢ, ἣν, This, however, is never done in the Accusative 
plural. 

Obs. 9. This declension has also some words contracted, 
as γῆ from yéa, (hence γεωμέτρης,) λεοντῆ from λεοντέη, urd 
from uréa, AOnra from ’AOnréa, “Ερμῆς from ‘Eguéas. ‘They 
are declined exactly the same as the examples which have 
been given under this declension; viz. those in « like the pure 
nouns: while in those in o7 the 7 absorbs the vowel preceding, 
as ἁπλόη, ἁπλῆ. 


SECOND DECLENSION. 
ὁ λόγος, the word. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 
Ν. ὁ λόγος N. οἱ λόγοι 
6. τοῦ λόγου N. A. V. τὼ λόγω G. τῶν λόγων 
D. τῷ λόγῳ D. τοῖς λόγοις 
A. τὸν λόγον G. Ὁ. τοῖν λόγοιν». A. τοὺς λόγους 
V. λόγε. γ. λόγοι. 

τὸ σῦχον, the fig. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. τὸ σῦκον Ν. τὰ σῦκα 
6. τοῦ σύκου N. A. V. τὼ σύκω | G. τῶν σύκων 
D. τῷ σῦύκῳ D. τοῖς σύκοις 
Α. τὸν σῦκον 6. D. τοῖν σῦκοιν. | A. τὰ σῦκα 
Υ. σῦκον. | Υ. σῦκα. 

Aitic Form. 
ὁ νεὼς, the temple, 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 
Ν. ὁ νεώς Ν. οἱ νεῴ 
6. τοῦ vse N. A. Υ. τὼ vee G. τῶν νεῶν 
D. τῷ νεῷ D. τοῖς νεῷς 
A. τὸν νεών 6. D. τοῖν νεῷν. Α. τοὺς νεώς 
Υ. γεώς. Vv. γεῷ. 

«τό ἀνώγεων, the hall. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. τὸ ἀνώγεων N. τὰ ἀνώγδω. 
G. τοῦ ἀνώγεω N. A. Υ. τὼ ἀνώγεω | 6. τῶν ἀνώγεων" 
D. τῷ ἀνώγεῳ Ὦ. τοῖς ἀνώγεῳς 
Α. τὸ ἀνώγεων G. D. τοῖν ἀνώγεφν. | A. τὰ ἀνώγεω 
V. ἀγνώγεων. cM, ἀνώγεῳ. 


27 


Contracted Forms. 


ὁ νόος, νοῦς, the mind. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. νόος, νοῦς N. γόοι, vot 
G. νόου, vod N. A. V. νόω, γνῶ | 6. νόων, νῶν 
D. νόῳ, νῷ D. »όοις, γοῖς 
A. νόον, νοῦν G. D. γόοιν, νοῖν. | A. γόους, γοῦς 
V γόε, νοῦ. Υ. νόοι, voi. 

τὸ ὀστέον, ὀστοῦν, the bone. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. ὀστέον, ὀστοῦν N. A.V Ν. ὀστέα, ὀστᾶ 
G. ὀστέου, ὀστοῦ ee ae G. ὀστέων, ὀστῶν 

SOF, “ ὀστέω, ὀστῶ ἃ τ 

D. ὀστέῳ, ὀστῷ GD D. ὀστέοις, ὀστοῖς 
A. ὀστέον, ὀστοῦν an Paes aks A. ὀστέα, ὀστᾶ 
V. ὀστέον, ὀστοῦν. ca Ἵ Υ. ὀστέα, ὀστᾶ. 


To the contracted forms of this declension may also be re- 


ferred ’ Ijoois, differing’ in the Dative only which ends in ov; 
and, (with more propriety than the triptots,) Diminutives in 
ug; as Aioric, Καμῦς, Κλαυσῦς 


Singular. 
N. ὁ ᾿Ιησοῦς 
6. τοῦ ᾿Ιησοῦ 
D. τῷ ᾿Ιησοῦ 
A. τὸν ᾿Ιησοῦν 


Singular. 
Ν. ὁ Jduvis 
6. τοῦ Aiovod 
D. τῷ Aiovod 
A. τὸν ““ιονῦν 


Vv. ? Ingod. Υ. ΑΙιονῦ. 


Observations on the Second Deelension. 


Obs. 1. The termination in ov is neuter, that in os for the 
most part masculine. Some few nouns in o¢ occur, which 
are of the feminine, and others again which are of the common 
gender. These are best learned by actual observation. Among 
the feminines in oc, however, there are several which are in 
reality adjectives with a feminine substantive understood, as, 
ἡ διάλεκτος, the dialect, (φωνή understood); ἡ διάμετρος, the 
diameter, (γραμμή understood) ; ἡ ἄτομος, the atom, (οὐσία un- 
derstood); ἡ ἄνυδρος, the desert, (χώρα understood); &c. 

Obs. 2. A strong analogy subsists between this and the 
second declension of Latin nouns ; thus, the Greek nomina- 
tives in o¢ and ov are sometimes written in os and on in Latin 


28 


as Alpheos or Alpheus; Ilion or Ilium. Again, the genitive 
singular of the second declension in Latin, in words of Greek 
origin, ended anciently in wu, like the Greek ov, as Menandru, 
Apollodoru, afterwards Menandri, Apollodort. The dative sin- 
gular of the Latin second declension was originally οἱ, like 
the Greek @, as dominoi, ventoi, and the accusative om, as mor- 
bom, servom. In the same manner, the Greek and Latin voca- 
tive singular of this declension coincide, they ending respec- 
tively in 6 and e; “and, as the Greeks sometimes retain o¢ for 
é in the vocative, so also do the Latins use in some words us 
for e, as Deus, &c. The analogy might be extended through- 
out the plural also. vid. Ruddimanni Instit. L. G. ed. Stal- 
baum. Lips. 1823. Vol. 1. p. 54. 

Obs. 3. The poets change the termination ov of the geni- 
tive singular into ovo, as λόγοιο, σῦύκοιο. 

Obs. 4. Instead of the vocative in 8 the form of the nomina- 
tive is sometimes used, as φίλος ὦ Mevélus, 1]. δ΄, 189. This 
is particularly the case in the Attic dialect. The word Θεός, 
God, always has ος in the vocative. 

Obs. 5. In the genitive and dative of the dual, the poets 
insert an ¢, as innoiiv, σταθμοιὲν, ὥμοιυν. 

Obs. 6. The AXolians and Dorians insert an » after the ὁ in 
the accusative plural, as they do in the first declension after 
the @; as κάττοις νόμοις, for κατὰ τοὺς νόμους. ‘The poets use 
ος in the accusative plural when a short syllable is necessary, 
as τὰς δασυκέρκος ἀλώπεκας. Theocr. 5.112. τὼς κάνθαρος,114. 
τὼς λύκος, 4. 11. 

Obs. 7. The name of Attic, which is commonly applied to 
the form in ὡς of this declension, is not a very proper one for 
two reasons. 1. Because the Attics did not decline in this 
way all nouns in os; and 2. because it is by no means peculiar 
to the Attic dialect, but occurs also in the Ionic and Doric 
writers. Itis,in fact,an old mode of declining, and the num- 
ber of words to which it is applied is very small, and even of 
some of these there exist forms in ος, as 6 λαός, the people, and 
ὁ λεώς ; ὁ ναός, the temple, and 6 νεώς. In the accusative sin- 
gular of these nouns in ὡς, the Attics often omit the ν, as Aaya, 
ved, ἕω, for λαγών, νεών, ἕων. In proper names this is almost 
always done, as Ko, Kéw,”40w.—The Attics often declined, 
after this form, words which otherwise belong to the third 
declension, as Μίνω from Μίνως, for Μίνωα ; γέλων from γέλως, 
γέλωτος, for γέλωτα  ἥρων from ἥρως, for jgwo«.—The last thing 
to be remarked is, that the neuter of some adjectives of this 
form has often instead of wy, as ἀγήρω for ἀγήρων ; and that 
only one neuter of this form is found ending in ὡς, viz. τὸ 


29 


χρέως, the debt. This last must not be confounded with χρεών, 
an Attic form for χράον, the participle of χρή “it is necessary,” 
and which occurs as indeclinable in Eurip. Here. fur. 21. sits 
τοῦ χρεὼν μέτα. 

Οὖς. 8. In the contracted forms of the second declension, if 
the latter vowel be short, the contraction is in ov; if long, 
the former vowel is dropt; as the student will perceive from 
the declension of γόος. ‘The compounds of vdo0¢ and δόος are 
not contracted in the neuter plural, nor in the genitive: thus 
we say εὔνοα, δὐνόων, not ευνᾶ, ευνῶν.----Σάος is contracted 
thus; Sing. N. σάος, σῶς, A. σάον, σῶν : Pl. A. σάους, σάας, 
σῶς; σάα, σᾶ. 

Obs. 9. By the later ecclesiastical writers, νοῦς was inflected 
after the following manner, νοῦς vods, vot, vod, 


THIRD DECLENSION. ἡ 
ὁ 6/0, the wild beast. 


Singular Dual. Plural. 
N.6 θήρ N. οὐ θῆρες 
G. τοῦ θηρός N. A. V. τὼ θῆρε G. τῶν θηρῶν 
D. τῷ θηρί D. τοῖς θηρσί 
A. τὸν θῆρα α. Ὦ. τοῖν θηροῖν. Α. τοὺς θῆρας 
V. θήρ. ! Vv. θῆρες." 


τὸ σῶμα, the body. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 

N. τὸ σῶμα Ν. τὰ σώματα 

6. τοῦ σώματος N. A. V. τὼ σώματα G. τῶν σωμάτων 

D. τῷ σώματι D. τοῖς σώμασι 

A. τὸ σῶμα 6. Ὁ. τοῖν σωμάτοιν. Α. τὰ σώματα 

V. σῶμα. Υ. σώματα. 
ὁ μήν, the month. 

Singular Dual. Plural. 
N.6 μήν N. οἱ μῆνες 
G, τοῦ μηνός Ν. A. V. τὼ μῆνδ G. τῶν μηνῶν 
D. τῷ μηνί D. τοῖς μησί 
Α. τὸν μῆνα 6. D, τοῖν μηνοῖν. A. τοὺς μῆνας 
Vv. μὴν. Vv. μῆνες. 


4 


i φ νὸν = Fenn ye re ee el ee i.e ee) ee 


30 


ὁ γίγας, the giant. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 
Ν. ὁ γίγας Ν. οἱ γίγαντες 
6. τοῦ γίγαντος N. A. V. τὼ γίγαντξ G. τῶν γίγαντων 
D. τῷ γίγαντι Ὁ, τοῖς γίγᾶσι 
A, τὸν γίγαντα | G. D. τοῖν γιγάντοιν. Α. τοὺς γίγαντας 
᾿ γίγαν. γι γίγαντες. 


Ε 


παῖς. the boy. 


Singular. | Dual. ~ Plural. 
N.6 παῖς N. οὗ. πᾶιδες 
G. τοῦ παιδός N. A. V. τὼ παῖδε G. τῶν παίδων 
D. τῷ modi D. τοῖς παισί 
A. τὸν παῖδα G.D. τοῖν παίδοιν. Α. τοὺς παῖδας 
Vv. πᾶι. Vv. παῖδες. 


Observations on the Third Declension. 
GENITIVE. 


The inflexion of words of this declension, de- 
pends chiefly upon the consonants which precede 
the termination og of the genitive, and are re- 
tained through all the other cases, except some 
deviations in the accusative singular. 


Obs. 1. The termination of the genitive singular is os. This 
is subject to various rules. 1. It is in some cases annexed 
immediately to the nominative, as μήν, μήν-ος, σωτήρ, σωτῆρ-ος. 
2. In the greater part of the nouns which belong to this de- 
clension, ος is not only added to the nominative, but the long 
vowel in the termination of the nominative is changed into the 
corresponding short one, as λιμήν, λιμέν-ος ; μητήρ, μητέρ-ος. 
There are, however, exceptions to this remark ; thus, in some 
words, particularly monosyllables, the long vowel is retained, 
as in μήν, σπλην, χήν, κλών, αἰών, &c. 3. When the nomina- 
tive ends in a double consonant, &, (ys, *s, vs,) or w, (Bs, πις, 
@s;) this is separated, and ¢ is changed into os ; § is changed 
into γος, κος, yoo; yw into Bos, πος, wos: as aif, αἰγός, φλέψ, 
gis66c; Gy, ὠπός: 4, The nominatives in ας, εἰς, ous, are, for 
the most part, formed from the terminations, «vs, evs, ovs, and 
hence have the genitive in αντος, evt0¢, ovroc—There are, 


3] 


however, many deviations from these general rules, but these: 
are best known by actual practice. 

Obs. 2. It has been conjectured that all nouns of this de- 
clension originally ended in s, and that the genitive was form- 
ed by the insertion of o before s, as is still the case in a large 
class of words, as ὄφιες, ὄφιος ; μῦς, μυός ; Hows, Howos; &c. thus 
γύναικς,ος; γὺπς, os 3 βὴχς, ος ; “Agabs, ος; Κύκλωπς, oc. On | 
this principle, the terminations in ὃς, τς, θς, vs, ec, may be sup- 
posed to have dropped their first letter, as ἐλπὶς for ἐλπὶδς- 
wos ; χαρίς for χαρίτς-ιτος ; φῶς for φῶτς-ωτὸς : ὄρνες for ὄρνιθς -- 
Gos. Sometimes the preceding vowel was lengthened, as ποὺς - 
for πὸδς-οδος ; κτεὶς for xtévc-evdc. Sometimes the last letter 
was dropped, as véxtag for véxtags-agos ; ῥὶς for divs. Some- 
times both letters were dropped, as σῶμα for σῶματς-ατος ; 
μέλι for μέλυιτς-ος. The analogy has been extended to the La- 
tin third declension, and the termination is supposed to have 
been originally in s, and the genitive to have been formed by 
the insertion of 7, as it is still in sus, suis; plebs, plebis ; he- 
ros, herois ; thus, pacs, pacts ; regs, regis ; lapids, lapidis ; &c. 
Among the advocates for this theory, which was first intro- 
duced we believe by Markland, may be mentioned Dr. Murray 
(History of European Languages, vol. 2. p. 54.) Professor 
Dunbar, on the other hand, has recently published some very 
ingenious speculations on this subject, which go very far 
towards establishing the position, that the inflections of the 
noun, &c. in Greek and Latin, are produced by pronouns. 
Thus, the primitive form of the nominative of ἐλπὶς will be 
ἐλπιδ-ος, changed to ἐλπιὸδς. ἰο prevent its being confounded 
with the genitive, and softened subsequently to ἐλπὶς. So 
ὄφις originally made ὀφι-ος in the nominative ; πους, 20d-0c, &c. 
The learned Professor’s remarks on the other cases of the 
noun, as well as on the inflections of the adjective, participle, 
&c. are remarkable for their ingenuity and acuteness. vid 
Dunbar on the Greek and Latin Languages, p. 50. seqq. 


ACCUSATIVE. 


The accusative singular of nouns not neuter 
is formed from the genitive by changing og into 
a3 aS μήν, μήν-ος, μήν-α. 

To this, however, there are the following ex- 
ceptions—1. Nouns in vc, vc, auc, ouc, whose ge- 
nitive ends in ος pure, take vy for a; δ ὄφις. a 


32 


serpent, G. ὄφιος, A. ὄφιν ; βότρυς, a bunch of 
grapes, G, βότρυος, A. βότρυν; ναῦς, a ship, G. 
γαὸς, A. ναῦν; βοῦς, an or,G, βόος, A. βοῦν .---- 

Barytons in ἐς and uc, whose genitive ends in oc 
impure, make both @ and ψ; as ἔρις, strife, G. 
ἔριδος, A. ἔριδα and ἔριν ; κόρυς, an helmet, G. 
κόρυδος, A. χόρυθα and κόρυν. 


Obs. 1. Sometimes in the accusative of words in », the: 50]- 
lable να is omitted, as ᾿“΄πόλλω for ᾿“πόλλωνα ; Ποσειδῶ for 
Ποσειδῶνα ; ἐλάσσω for ἐλάσσονα. : 

Obs. 2. Aéas also makes λᾶαν ; dis, dios makes Jia; χροῦς 
makes yoda. The poets frequently use the regular termination 
in α. 

Obs. 3. κλεὶς, κλειδὸς has both terminations. dyuooberijs 
makes δὰ and 7”. Χάρις, a Grace, has Χάριτα ᾿, χάρις, favour, 
χάριν. ‘The compounds of ποὺς have also both terminations, as 
ὠκύπους, ὠκύποδα, and ὠκύπουν. 


VOCATIVE, 


Frequently in the third declension, a noun, which has a 
vocative of its own, is found, especially among the Attic wri- 
ters, to make the vocative like the nominative. The follow- 
ing are the general rules by which the vocative of this declen- 
sion is formed: it must be left to observation, however, in 
particular cases, whether the vocative be actually formed ac- 
cording to them, or be made like the nominative. 


The termination of the Vocative either, 1, 
shortens the long vowel of the Nominative, as 
"Extwo, Hector, V."Extog; or, 2, drops the ς, 
as μῦς, a mouse, V. uv; or, 3, changes ¢ into », 
as τάλας, miserable, V. τάλαν. 


Obs. 1. The short vowel is substituted in the vocative for 
the long vowel of the nominative, generally in those nouns 
which have 8 or ὁ in the genitive ; as μήτηρ, G. μητέρος (by 
syncope μητρὸς), V. μῆτερ; τλήμων, G. thijuovoc, V. τλῆμον ; 
χελιδὼν, G. χελιδόνος, V. χελιδόν. The words which retain 
the long vowel in the genitive, retain it also in the vocative ; 
as Πλάτων, G. Πλάτωνος, V. Πλάτων; Ξενοφῶν, G. Ξενοφῶντος, 


33 


V. Ξενοφῶν; ἐητήρ, G. ἐητῆρος, V. ἰητήρ. ‘There are only three 
of this latter class of nouns which shorten the vowel in the 
vocative, viz. ᾿“πόλλων, G. ᾿“πόλλωνος, V.”Andidov ; Ποσει- 
δῶν, G. Ποσειδῶνος, V. Πόσειδον ; σωτήρ, ἃ. σωτῆρος, V. σῶτερ. 

Obs. 2. Proper names in κλῆς make κλδὲς in the vocative ; 
for the nominative is properly —xAéy¢, and the vocative —xAeec, 
contracted —xdewc: as, “Ἡρακλῆς (contracted from ᾿ΗἩρακλέης), 
V. ‘Hodxieic, (contracted from “ΗἩράκλεες.) 

Obs. 3. ¢ is dropped in the vocative of nouns whose no- 
minative ends in δυς, ἐς, us, ous, and avs; as, βασιλεύς, V. Ba- 
σιλεῦ; Πάρις, V. Πάρι: Tidus, V. Τῆθυ; νοῦς, V. νοῦ; παῖς, 
Υ. παῖ. e 

Obs. 4. Words in ας and δὲς, which arise from evs and eve, 
and have αΥἦτος and evtos in the genitive, throw away ς and re- 
sume v; as, diag (Atavs), G. Aiuvtoc, V. Aiav ; "Ἄτλας ("At- 
dave), G.”* Athavtoc, V.”Athay ; tiwag (τύψανς), G. τύψαντος, 
V. τύψαν; χαρίεις (yaglers), G. χαρίεντος, V. χαρίεν. In pro- 
per names, however, the poets often reject the », as dia for 
Aiav ; Oda for Oday, 

Oés. 5. Words in ὦ and ws makeor, as Sango, V. Lamport ; 
ἀιδὼς, V. αἰδοῖ. τ 

Obs. 6. γυνὴ has γύναν in the vocative from the old nomina- 
tive γύναιξ ; and ἄναξ has in the vocative ἄνα in addressing a 
Deity, otherwise ἄναξ. 


DATIVE PLURAL. 


The Dative Plural appears to have been form- 
ed originally from the Nominative plural, by an- 
nexing the syllable ov, or the vowel 2; so that in 
neuter nouns, instead of a, ἐς was considered the 
termination. ‘These old forms remained in use 
in the Ionic, Doric, and Aolic Dialects; as, παῖς, 
a boy, N. P. παῖδες, D. P. παίδεσσι ; as also, 
χεῖρες, χείρεσσι ; ἄνδρες, ἄνδρεσσι ; πόλιες, πολί- 
ἐσσι; ἱππῆες, ἱππήεσσι ; πράγματα (πράγματες) 
πραγμάτεσι ; SC. 


When ¢s came together before oo», a triple form arose, viz. 

in ségot, soar, and sav; as, βέλεα (βέλεες) Baddsor, Il. ἐ. 622, 

&c. βέλεσσι, Il. ἀ. 42. &c. βέλεσι, Od. π΄. 277. Again, ἔπεα 

(ἔπεες) ἐπέεσσι, Il. δ'. 187. &ic. ἔπεσσι, Od. δ΄. 597. Ke, ἔπεσι, 
4* 


34 


11. é. 77. In other words also, + only was annexed to the no- 
minative, instead of σι; as, ἀνάκτεσι, Od. ὁ. 556. from ἄναξ, 
ἄνακτες so παίδεσι, μήνεσι; ἄτα. 

In the gradual softening and improvement of the language, 
various changes were introduced into these old forms, the most 
important of which are here enumerated. 

1. The ¢ preceding the single o was omitted ; as δεπάεσσιν, 
δεπάεσιν, δέπασιν, from δέπας ; θήρεσσι, θήρεσι, θηρσί, from 
θὴρ ; σωτῆρεσσι, σωτῆρεσι, σωτῆρσι, from σωτὴρ. Only one ex- 
ception occurs to this rule, in the case of words which end in 
ms and os, and which have in the nominative plural, δες, or its 
equivalent in declension ea. These reject only ¢, and retain 
the other ; as, ἀληθέεσσι, ἀληθέεσι, ἀληθέσι, from ἀληθὴς : τείχεα, 
(τε  χεες) τειχέεσσι, τειχέεξσι, τεέχεσι, from τεῖχος. 

' 2. Ifa consonant occurred before ov, it was changed accord- 
ing to the rule of euphony; that is, 0, 0,7, ν, and v1, were 
omitted before a; as, πόδεσσι, πόδεσι, ποδοί, ποσί, from ποῦς ; 
ὀρνίθεσσι, ὀρνίθεσι, ὄρνιθσι, ὄρντσι, from ὄρνες ; φρένδσσι, φρένε-- 
σι, goeval, φρεσί, from φρὴν ; σώματεσσι, πώματεσι, σώματσι, 
σώμασι, from σῶμα; πάντεσσι, πάντεσι, πάντσι, πᾶσι, ἴτοτη πᾶς.---- 
The quantity in the dative plural was regulated by the quantity 
in the rest of the oblique cases, and in the nommative plural. 
Hence xrte/c, in the dative plural does not make xzevol, but 
κτεσί, from the nominative plural κτένες ; ποῦς, not oval, but 
ποσί from πόδες : so also, δαίμων, δαίμονες, δαίμοσι; δρῦς, δρῦες, 
δρῦσί. Again, if, after the rejection of the consonants »7 be- 
fore σι, the foregoing syllable is short, then the doubtful vow- 
els α, +, v, become long, as πᾶσι, γιγᾶσι, ζευγνῦσι, or as is 
changed in words in ais into αὖ ; as γραῦς, γρᾶες, ygavol ; and 
from 8 and 0, are made the diphthongs δὲ and ov; as, τυφθέντες, 
(τυφθέντεσσι, τυφθέντεσι, τυφθέντσι,) τυφθεῖσι; διδόντες, (δι- 
δόντεσσι, διδόντεσι, διδόντσι,) διδοῦσι. In words which end in 
suc, however, the « becomes &v; as, ἱππεὺς, ἱππέεσσι, ἱππέεσι, 
ἱππέσι, ἱππεῦσι; Awovers, “Ἰωριεῦσι; βασιλέυς, βασιλεῦσι, Ke. 

3. When β, π, φ, or y, *, 7, precede the termination o, they 
are changed, together with the o which follows, into the dou- 
ble consonants y and ἕ ; as,” Agabes, ᾿ “ράδεσι,"“ραψι; αἶγες, 
αἴγεσι, αἰξί ; μέροπες, μερόπεσι, μερόψε; κόρακες, κοράκεσι, κό- 
ραξι; τρίχες, τρέχεσι, θριξί. ; 

4. Of those which reject 8 before σι, some change the δ 
mute into the more sonorous α ; as πατέρες, (πατέρεσι, by syn- 
cope πατρέσι,) changed to πατράσι; ἄνδρες, (ἄνδρεσσι, ἄνδρέσι,) 
changed to ἀνδράσι ; so also, μητράσι ; θυγατράσι; ἀστράσι; ὅτε. 

Οὐς. 5. The theory for forming the dative plural, as we 
have here given it, is stated by Matthie in his Grammar, and 


39 


third declension, in the plural, after the second ; as, γερόντσις 
adopted by nearly all the philologists of the day. Dunbar’s 
theory, however, (vid. page 31. Obs. 2. extr.) is directly in op- 
position. “The formation of the dative plural of Greek 
nouns,” observes the Professor, “appears to have been effected / 
by a double dative singular. Thus, the dative singular of λό- 
γος was λόγοι. If we add to it another form, viz. «Fv, in which 
the aspirate was pronounced as a or Ate we shall have doyolvar, 
and then, by the omission of one of the iotas, λόγοισι, the Ionic 
form: the Attic became λόγοις by dropping the last. vowel. 
The same process took place in the formation of the dative 
plural of the third declension. ‘Thus ἔπος has in the dative 
singular ἔπει. Let us subjoin the dative ἐσὲ, the same as the 
Latin εὐ by the omission of the sigma, and we have éme-sat ; 
then, by dropping the iota, ἐπέ-εσι, a form which occurs often 
in Homer; and again, by omitting one of the epsilons, ἔπεσι, 
the common dative plural.” Ogs had originally in the dative 
singular 697 /Oec ; dat. plur. ὀρνιθεί-εσι, then ὀρνιθέ-εσι, ὀρνέθεσι, 
ὄρνιθσι, and lastly ὄρνισι. In such examples as λέων, the dative 
singular was Jeorter; the dat. plur. Ae0r-1e-201, λεοντεσι, λεοντσε, 
λεονσι, and last of all, λεουσι, by the well-known conversion of 
the » into a vowel, to form with the ὁ ἃ proper diphthong. In 
some nouns, such as βασιλεὺς and βοῦς, the subjunctive vowel 
of the diphthong, which disappears in the formation of the 
genitive and dative, is said to be resumed in the dative plural. 
‘The reason seems to be this: The vowel v, though omitted in 
writing, was evidently used in pronunciation, as in the Latin 
bovis: so also in Greek βόξος, dative βόξει: in the dative 
plural BoF'e-eor, and hence βοεσι. By making the usual omis- 
sions and contractions, the dative became in the common dia- 
lect Botov.” Dunbar on the Greek and Latin Languages, p. 92. 
seqq- Pee y TF Pe 
a Ft # py St 
iv Se 
i oan, “Ὁ 
i ® φ, 
CONTRACTED ee ἐὰν # bra ἢ» 
Contracts of the First Declobeichi; pene ἸἌ 
' an } aifornis. ἫΝ se 
In the First Declension ea is contracted-into 
ἢ; as, N. γέα, γῆς the earth ; G. yéas, γῆς ; Ὁ. yee, 
γῇ; A. γέαν, γῆν ; V. γέα, γῆ, &e.; and exc is con- 


tracted into ἧς, as N. ἱΕρμέας, “Ἑρμῆς, Mercury ; 
G. ‘Eguéov, ‘Eguot; Ὁ, “Ἑρμέᾳ, ᾿Ερμῇ., ἄς. 


36 


‘Pea, and all other terminations, drop the for- 
mer vowel; as, N. ἔρεα, ἐρᾶ, the earth; (ἃ, ἐρέ- 
ας, ἐρᾶς, &c.; N. ἁπλόη, ἁπλῆ, simplicity; G. 
anions, ἁπλῆς, &e. 


“- 


Contracts of the Second Declension, 


In the Second Declension, if the latter vowel 
is short, the contraction is in ov; if long, the for- 
mer vowel is dropt; as, N. νόος, νοῦς, the mind ; 
G. νόου, νοῦ; D. νόῳ, νῷ, &e. 


Contracts of the Third Declension. 


1. Nouns in ve, voc, have only two contractions, 
viz. vec and vac into vc: thus, 


ὁ βοτρυς, the bunch of grapes. 


| Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. βότρυς, N. βότρυες,υς, 
G. βότρυος, N. A. V. βότρυε, G. βότρυων, 
D. βότρυν, D. βότρυσι, 
A. βότρυν, G. D. βότρυοιν. A. βότρυας, vs, 
V. βότρυ. Υ. βότρυες, us. 


2. Nouns in ἐς and z have three contractions, 
ViZ. εἰ into εἰ, ες and εας into εἰς ; those in zc have 
also the Attic form in the genitive singular, and 
genitive and dative dual; viz. εως and ewy: those 
in ὁ follow the common dialect, and have εος and 
eolty: thus, 


ὁ ὄφις, the serpent. Ν 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. ὄφις, 3 N. desc, δις, 
G. ὄφεως, Ν. A. V. ὄφεε, G. ὄφεων, 
D. ὄφεϊ, ev, D. ὄφεσι, 
A. ὄφιν, G. D. dgeor. A. ὄφεας, sts, 


V. bp Υ. ὄφεες, εἰς. 


37 


τὸ σίνηπι, the mustard. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. σίνηπει, N. σινήπεα, 
G. σινήπεος, N. A. V. σινήπεε, G. σινήπεων, 
Ὁ. σιγήπεϊ, ει, 1 D. σινήπεσι, 
Α. σίνηπι, G. Ὁ. σινηπέοιν. A. σινήπεα, 
V. σίνηπι. V, σινήπϑα. 


3. Nouns in ὡς and ὦ have three contractions, 
ViZ. οος into ovc, ov, into οἵ, and oe into w: thus, 


ἡ αἰδὼς, the modesty. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 
Ν. αἰδώς. Ν. αἰδοὶ, 
6. αἰδόος, ods, N. A. V. αἰδώ, 6. αἰδῶν, 
D. αἐδόϊ, οἱ, ] D. αἰδοῖς, 
A. αἰδόα, ὦ, G. D. αἱδοῖν. A. aidods, 
Υ͂. αἰδοῖ. Υ. αἰδοὶ, 

ἡ ἠχὼ, the echo. - 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. ἠχώ, N. ἠχοὶ, 
G. ἠχόος, ovs, N. A. V. ἠχώ, G. ἠχῶν, 
D. ἠχόϊ, οἵ, D. ἠχοῖς, 
A. ἠχόα, ώ, σ. Ὁ. ἠχοῖν. Α. ἠχοὺς, 
V. ἠχοῖ. Υ. ἠχοὶ, 


4, Nouns in eve, and vc, make in the Genitive 


ewc, and have four contractions, viz. ei into ep, ee 
into 9, ee¢ and δας into εἰς : but those in ug alone 
contract the genitive and dative dual; thus, 


ὁ βασιλεύς, the king. 


Singular. * Dual, Plural. 
N. βασιλεύς, N. βασιλέες, sic, 
G. βασιλέως, N. A. V. βασιλές, ἢ, G. βασιλέων, 
D. βασιλέι, εἴ, Ὁ. βασιλεῦσι, 
Α. βασιλέα, G. Ὁ. βασιλέοιν. A. βασιλέας, εἴς, 
Υ. βασιλεῦ. V. βασιλεές, sic. 


38 


ὁ méhexuc, the axe. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 


N. πέλεκυς, : N. πόλεκεες, sic, 
6. πέλεκεως, Ν. Δ. V. πέλεκέε, 7, Ε. πέλεκεων, 
D. πέλεκεν, εἶ, Ὁ. πέλεκεσι, 
Α. πέλεκυν, G. D. πέλεκεῷν. A. πέλεκεας, εἴς» 
Υ. πέλεκυ. Γ Υ. πέλεκξες, εἴς. 


5. Neuters inv make the Nominative Accusa- 
tive and Vocative Plural in ea, 7, and also con- 
tract ef into εἰς and ξὲ into ἡ; they have also the 
common genitive, in eoc; thus, 


τὸ ἄστυ, the city. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. ἄστυ, N. ἄστεα, ἡ, 
6. ἄστεος, N. A. V. ἄστεε, G. ἄστέων, 
D, ἄστεϊ, δι, D. ἄστεσι, 
A. ἄστυ, 6. D. ἀστέοιυν. Α. ἄστεα, ἡ, 
Υ. ἄστυ. Υ. ἄστεα, 7. 


6. Nouns in 7¢, ec, and oc, are contracted in 
every case except in the Nominative and Voca- 
tive Singular, and Dative Plural; thus, 

ἡ τριήρης, the trireme. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 
Ν. τριήρης, N. τριήρδες, εἰς, 
6. τριήρεος, ους, | N. A. V. τριήρεδ, ἡ, 6. τριηρέων, ὧν, 
D. τριήρεἵ, δι, D. τριήρεσι, 
A. τριήρδα, ἡ, 6. Ὁ. τριηρέοιν, οἷν. A. τριήρδας, εις, 
Υ. τριήρες. Υ. τριήρδες, δις. 


Neuters in ες and ος make the Nominative Ac- 
cusative and Vocative Plural in ea, 7, and the 
Genitive Plural in éwy, dy ; thus, 


τὸ τεῖχος, the wall. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. τεῖχος, N. telyea, ἡ, 
6. τείχεος, ous, N. A. V. teiyee, ἡ, G. τειχέων, ὧν, 
D. telysi, δι, D. τείχεσι, 
A. τεῖχος, G. Ὁ. τειχέοιν, οἷν. A. τείχεα, ἢ, 
Υ͂. τεῖχος. Υ͂. τείχεα, ἡ. 


39 


Proper names in χλέης have a double contrac- 
tion, which, however, is confined in general to 
the Dative ; as, 


ὁ Περικλέης, κλῆς, Pericles. 


Singular. 
N.6 Περικλέης, κλῆς, 
6. τοῦ Περικλέος, κλοῦς, 
D. τῷ Περικλέεϊ, κλέδι, κλξι, 
A. τὸν Περικλέξα, κλέα, (rarely κλῆ,) 
V. πππερίκλεες, κλεις. 


6. Neuters in ας pure and ρας are both synco- 
pated and contracted in every case except the 
Nominative Accusative and Vorasies Singular, 
and the Dative Plural: thus, . 


τὸ χρέας, the flesh. 


Singular. 
N. τὸ κρέας, 
G. τοῦ κρέατος, by ἘΠ 909 πρέαος, by crasis χρέως, 
D. τῷ κρέατι, - - χρέαϊ, - - χρέᾳ, 
A. τὸ κρέας, 
V. " χρδας. 
Dual. 
N. A. V.1td xoéate, - xogas, - - χρέα, 
G.D. τοῖν xgedrow, - κρεάοιν, - κρεῷν, 
Plural. 
N. τὰ χρέατα, - - κπρέαα, = - χρέα, 
G. τῶν κρεάτων, - κρδβάων, - κρδῶν, 
Ὦ. τοῖς κρέασι, 
A. τὰ κρέατα, - - κρέαα, - - #080, 
V. κρέατα, - κρέαα, - κρέα. 
tO πόραξ, the horn, 60 
Singular. 
N. τὸ κέρας, 
G. τοῦ κέρατος, by syncope eee by crasis an 
D.1@ xégot, = - xégat, - - κέρᾳ, 
Α. τὸ κέρας, 
V. κέρας. 


40 
τ Dual. 
N.A.1@ κέρατο, = - κόραδ, - = κέρα, 
α. D. τοῖν κεράτοιν, - - κδράοιν, ᾿ = - κερῷν, 
Plural. Ἕ 
Ν. τὰ κέρατα, - - - EQ, - - κέρα, 
G. τῶν πέρατων, - - - κδράων, - - κερῶν, 


1). τοῖς κέρασι, 
Α. τὰ κέρατα, - = - πέραα, - -  κέρα, 
V κέρατα, - - - έραα, = - - κέρα, 


7. Some nouns are contracted by the omission 
of a vowel. 
1. In every case, as, 


φὸ ἔαρ, ἤρ, the spring. | ὁ λᾶας, λᾶς, the stone. 
Singular. : Singular. 
» τὸ ἔαρ, Ho, N. ὁ λᾶας, λᾶς, 
. τοῦ ἔαρος, ἦρος, 6. τοῦ λάαος, λᾶος, 
D. τῷ ἔαρι, ἦρι, ὅτε. D. τῷ λάαϊ, λᾶϊ, &e. 
ἡ δαΐς, δᾶς, the torch. ὁ, κενεὼν, the belly. 
Singular. Singular. 
N. ἡ dats, das, N.6 κενεὼν, κενῶν, 
G. τῆς δαΐδος, δᾷδος, 6. τοῦ κενεῶνος, κενῶνος, 
D. τῇ δαΐδι, δᾷδι, &e. D. τῷ κενδῶνι, κενῶνε, &e, 


2. In part of the cases, as, ἀνήρ, θυγάτηρ, μή- 
TNO, πατήρ: thus, 


ὁ ἀνήρ, the man. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. ἀνήρ, N. ἀνέρες, ἄνδρες, 
6. ἀνέρος, ἀνδρός, Ν. A. V. ἀνέρε, ἄνδρε, | ἃ. ἀνέρων, ἀνδρῶν, 
D. ἀνέρι, ἀνδρί, D. ἀνδράσι, 
A. ἀνέρα, ἄνδρα, α. Ὦ. ἀνέροιν, ἀνδροῖν. | A. ἀνέρας, ἄνδρας, 
Υ. ἄνερ. Υ. ἀνέρες, ἄνδρες. 
....- ἡ θυγάτηρ, the daughter. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 
Ν. θυγάτηρ, Ν. θυγατέφος, gee, 
6. θυγατέρος, ρὸς, [Ν. A. V. Ouyatége, ρ6, | G. θυγατέρων, ρῶν, 
D. θυγατέρι, oi, D. θυγατράσι, 


A. θυγατέρα, ρα, |G. D. θυγατέροιν, ροῖν. | A. θυγατέρας, ρας, 
Υ. θύγατερ. V. θυγατέρες, ρες. 


41 


ὁ πατήρ, the father. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. πατήρ, N. πατέρες, 
G. matégos, ods, | N. A. V. πατέρε, G. πατέρων, ρῶν, 
-D. πατέρε, gt, D. πατράσι, 
A. πατέρα, G.D. πατέροιυν». A. πατέρας, 
V πάτερ. Υ. πατέρες. 
IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 
- ἡ ναῦς, the ship. 
IONIC. ATTIC. 
Singular. Singular. 
N. ἡ νηῦς, N. ἡ ναῦς, 
G. τῆς νηός, (νεός); 6. τῆς νεώς, 
D. τῇ νηΐ, D. τῇ νηΐ, 
A. τῆν νῆα, (νέα), Α. τῆν ναῦν, 
WE: νηῦ. V. vad. 
Dual. Dual. 
N. A. V. wanting, N. A. V. wanting, 
G.D. ταῖν νεῦιν. G. Ὁ. ταῖν γεοῖν. 
Plural. Plural. 
N.aé νῆες, (νέες), N. af »νηξς, 
G. τῶν νηῶν, (veGr), G. τῶν vedr, 
D, ταῖς νηυσί, D. ταῖς ναυσί, 
A. τᾶς νῆας, (νέας), A. τὰς vais, 
We γῆες. Vv. νῆες. 


Remarks on some of the Contracted Forms of the Third 


Declension 


Nouns in ἐς and ὁ. 


Obs. 1. The dative singular very frequently occurs in Ionic 
writers, with a single ὁ, as μήτο for μήτεϊ, 1]. y’. 315. πόλι fo 
πολεῖ, Herod. 1, 105. δυνάμι for δυνάμεϊ, Herod. 2, 102. oy 
for wet, Herod. 2,141, &c. Besides these, the form εἴ is used 
by the Ionians, as πόσεϊ, πόλει, &c. In Homer and others, 
the contracted form é is one of very common occurrence. 

Obs. 2. Instead of the accusative in ἐν, the form α also oc- 
curs, as πόληα, Hesiod. Scut. 105.—The contracted form in the 

5 


42 


plural is frequent in Homer. In the accusative he has the 
contraction in ἐς. This contraction in ἐς was regular in Attic 
‘in the words οἷς and φθοῖς, as τὰς οἷς ; τοὺς φθοῖς for φθόϊδας ; 
so also ὄρνις for ὄρνιθας, Soph. Gad. T. 966. 


Nouns in évce. 


Obs. 1. The accusative singular in 7% of nouns in δὺς is of 
rare occurrence. ‘The nominative plural of the same class of 
nouns was contracted by the earlier Attic writers into ἧς, as 
βασιλῆς. The accusative plural, according to the observation 
of the old Grammarians, was in the genuine Attic dialect 
-- ας, not —sic, and yet the form —ei¢ frequently occurs. If 
a vowel preceded the termination, the Attics contracted ἑας 
into ἃς ; as, ἀγυιᾶς for ἀγυιέας ; χοᾶς for χοέας. The Ionians 
make uniformly βασιλῆος, βασιλῆϊ, βασιλῆα, βασιλῆας, &c. 

Obs. 2. Words which have a vowel before the termination 
us, contract in the genitive ἕως into ὥς ; as Πειραιεὺς, Ievoa- 
ἕως, contracted Πειραιῶς ; χοέυς, χοέως, contracted yods. 


Nouns in 7, ὃς, and o¢. 


Obs. 1. Like τριήρης, are declined alse proper names which 
are not patronymics ; as, ὁ Ζημοσθένης ; yet these have some- 
times the accusative according to the first declension, as τὸν 
Σωκράτην, τὸν ᾿“ντισθένην, τὸν ᾿“ριστοφάνην. 

Obs. 2. The Dorians and Ionians, in the genitive, use the 
contraction evs for ovs; as, “ριστοφάνξδυς, Εὐμήδευς, χείλευς 
from χεῖλος, ὄρευς from ὄρος, θέρευς from θέρος. 

Obs. 3. The /Kolians in the genitive and vocative omit s, 
as Σωκράτου, Σ᾿ ὠκρατε. 


Neuters in ας pure and ρας. 


Obs. 1. The declension of κέρας is given according to the 
usual form; it admits of a doubt, however, whether this mode 
of inflexion be the true one. The Attics said κέρας, κέρᾶτος, 
as they did φρέας, φρέατος, and it certainly does not seem cor- 
rect to form from it, by syncope, *égdo¢ with a short penult. 
The opinion of Dr. Maltby appears to be a more correct one, 
that κέρας forms only κέρατος in the genitive ; and that xégdo¢ 
comes from χέρας κέραος, not from κέρας κέρᾶτος. Blomfield 
suggests, that, wherever xég@os and xégéwy occur in Homer, 
we should probably read, κέρδος and κερέων. ‘These are, in 
fact, true Ionic forms ; κέρδος occurs in Herod. 6.111. whence 
we have #égea, id. 2. 38. 4.191. and xegéwy is found, id, 4. 183. 


43 


The reason why xegas has the long penult in the genitive and 
dative singular, and nominative, genitive, and accusative dual 
and plural, is that these cases are in reality contracted forms. 
Thus κερᾶτος from χεράατος, xegat from κεράατι, &c. Vid. 
Thes. Grec. Poes. ed. Maltby. Observ. p. xxx. Blomfield’s Re-. 
marks on Matthie’s Gr. Gr. p. xxxix. Brunch, ad Eurip. Bacch. 
909. and Brasse’s Greek Gradus, s. v. 

Obs. 2. According to the examples given, the Ionians de- 
clined also the substantives γόνυ, or yotvv, and dégv. Thus. 
N. τὸ γόνυ and γοῦνυ, G. τοῦ γούνατος and yourds, 1). τῷ γού- 
νατι, Pl. N. τὰ γούνατα and γοῦνα, G. τῶν γουνάτων and γού- 
γων, &c. So Ν. τὸ δόρυ, G. τοῦ δουρός and δορός ; D. τῷ δουρί 
and δορί, Pl. N. τὰ δοῦρα, G. τῶν δούρων, D. τοῖς δούρασε and 
δούρεσσι, &c. 


Remarks on ἀνήρ, πατήρ, ὅτο. 


Obs. 1. The principle on which 0 is inserted in the oblique 
case of ἀνήρ, has already been explained. 

Obs. 2. The particular most worthy the student’s attention 
is this; that, μήτηρ, πατήρ, and γαστήρ, form the accusative 
singular without contraction; as μητέρα, πατέρα, γαστέρα. 
This is done in the case of μήτηρ, in order to prevent its 
being confounded with μήτρα, ας, awomb; it is done in like 
manner in πατήρ, to prevent its being confounded with πάτρα, 
ας, a paternal land; and in γαστήρ, to prevent its being con- 
founded with γάστρα, ας, the bottom of a vessel. It should be 
remembered, also, that γαστήρ makes in the dative plural, yao- 
τῆρσι, Not γαστράσι. 


- Remarks on the noun γαῦς. 


Obs. 1. The Doric form was γᾶς, the oblique cases of which 
occur in the Attic poets also, not only in the chorusses but 
elsewhere ; as γαός, Eurip. Hec. 1253. vat, Iphig. T. 891, (in 
the chorus). γᾶες, Iphig. A. 242. (in the chorus). ‘The accu- 
sative νᾶας occurs in T'heoer. 7. 152 : 22. 17. 

Obs. 2. The Hellenistic writers use γᾶα in the accusative 
singular, and »@es in the accusative plural. 

Obs. 3. In like manner with vats is declined ἡ γραῦς, the 
old woman, (Ion. γρηῦς) G. τῆς γραός, D. τῇ yout, A. τὴν γραῦν, 
V. youd, (lon. ye7d), Pl. N. αὐ γρᾶες and γρῆες, (not αὐ γραῦς), 
G. τῶν γραῶν, D. ταῖς γραυσί, A. τὰς γραῦς. Yet of this in 
general only the nominative sing. accusative sing. and plural, 
and the genitive plural are used: in the rest of the cases γραῖα 
is more common. : | | 


44 


So also, ἡ βοῦς, G. τῆς βοός, D. τῇ Bot, A. τὴν βοῦν, (not 
βόα). Pl. N. αὐ βόες (not βοῦς), G. τῶν βοῶ», D. ταῖς βουσί, A. 
τὰς βοῦς, and βόας. 


GENERAL REMARKS. 


In the genitive and dative singular and plural, the poets an- 
nex the syllable φι, or (with » ἐφελκυστικόν) gir; this the 
Grammarians term qu paragogicum. When this is done, if 
the substantive end in 7, the ¢ of the genitive is omitted ; if the 
substantive end in ος or ov, the oalone remains before gz, while 
in those in ος, gen. εος, ous, the form és, or eve (the Ionic con- 
traction from δος) enters; as, δὲ δὐνῆφι, for ἐξ εὐνῆς ; φρήτρη, 75, 
D. φρήτρηφιν, for poten; ἀπὸ στρατόφιεν, for ἀπὸ στρατὸυ ; θεό- 
giv, Dat. for θεῷ ; ἐξ ἐρέδεξοσφιν, for ἐξ ἐρέδους ; ἀπὸ στήθεσφι, 
for ἀπὸ στήθους - κλισίησφι, Dat. for πλεσίαες ; σὺν ὄχεσφι, for σὺν 
ὄχεσι ; παρὰ ναῦφιν, for παρὰ γαῦσιν. 

The termination θὲν appears to be an appendage of ἃ simi- 
lar nature, but is found only in the genitive; δὲ ἁλόθεν, for ἐξ 
ἁλὺς. In the same manner Oey is annexed to the genitive of 
the pronouns, ἐγὼ, σύ, 06; as ἐμέθεν (from ἐμέο), σέθεν (σέο), 
ὅθεν (6). Afterwards these forms of nouns were used as ad- 
verbs ; as ᾿4θήνηθεν, Θήθηθεν. 


IRREGULAR NOUNS. 


1. Some nouns have different genders in the 
singular and plural. 


Obs. 1. Thus, 6 δίφρος, the chariot-seat, in the plural τὰ 
δίφρα; ὁ θεσμός, the decree, plural τὰ θεσμά; ἡ κέλευθος, the 
way, plural τὰ κέλευθα, ὁ κύκλος, the circle, plural τὰ κύκλα: 
ὁ λύχνος, the lamp, plural τὰ λύχνα ; 6 σῖτος, the corn, plural τὰ 
σῖτα ; 6 σταθμός, the station, plural τὰ σταϑμά ; ὁ Τάρταρος, Tar- 
tarus, plural τὰ Τάρταρα. 

Obs. 2. In the substantives above enumerated, the singular 
does not occur as neuter. But the following, which are con- 
sidered as belonging to this class, are found neuter in the sin- 
gular; as, τὰ νῶτα from τὸ γῶτον ; τὰ ἐρετμά from τὸ ἐρετμόν ; 
τὰ ζυγά from τὸ ζυγόν, 

Οὗ. 3. The following nouns, neuter in the plural, and mas- 
culine in the singular, are of more rare occurrence; as τὰ 
δρυμά, the forests, from ὁ δρυμός ; τὰ δάκτυλα, the fingers, from 
6 déxtvlog; τὰ τράχηλα, the necks, from ὁ τράχηλος ; τὰ gine, 
the filth, from ὁ ῥυπος. 


45 


2. Some have different declensions. 


Obs. 1. Greek words, in which double forms are used to- 
gether in one case, are said to be redundant (abundantia). Ge- 
nerally, however, these double forms are not both peculiar to 
one dialect, but each to a different one. 

Obs. 2. Examples follow; as ὁ ταός, the peacock; Attic 
ταώς, ταώ; and ταών, ta@vos ; λαγός, a hare, Ionic λαγωός, Atiic 
λαγώς ; so also γαός, a temple, Attic νεώς ; λαός, a people, Attic 
λεώς ; in like manner δάκρυ and δάκρυον both occur in Homer, 
from the first comes δάκρυοις (Eurip. Iph. A. 1175.) and from 
the latter δάκρυσι (id. Troad. 315.) Instead also of δένδρον, 
νου, another form occurs, δένδρος, εος, whence δένδρει, δένδρεα, 
δενδρέων, δένδρεσι. 

Obs. 8. The Attics particularly declined nouns in ὦν, νος, 
in ὦ, od¢; as χελιδώ, οὖς, for χελιδών, όνος ; ἀηδώ, οὖς, for ἀηδών, 
évos. This also takes place in the Lonic dialect. 

Obs. 4. A word which is almost universally redundant is 
χρώς, χρωτός. Another from χροῦς occurs, which is declined 
like βοῦς, (vid: page 44.) and hence we have in the genitive 
χρωτός and χροός, dative χρωτί and χροΐ, accusative χρῶτα and 
χρόα. The dative has still a third form γρῷ, which is used 
mostly in prose. Adjectives compounded of χροῦς have also, 
among the Attics, usually the termination yews, as Asuxdyowe. 

Obs. 5. Some words in the plural are derived from other 
forms different from those of the singular; as πρεσβδυτής, 
which has of πρέσδεις in the plural, from πρέσδυς, or πρέσόδις. 
Frequently a new form of the nominative arises from an ob- 
lique case of the old form, as φύλαξ, φύλακος ; and φύλακος, ov; 
μάρτυς, μάρτυρος ; and μάρτυρος, ov ; διάκτωρ, διάκτορος ; and 
διάκτορος, ov. So fromthe accusative Jyuntéga, anew nomi- 
native Jnurjrea, ας, arose. 


3. Some are termed anomalous. 


Obs. Those are called anomalous or irregular nouns, whose 
oblique cases pre-suppose a nominative different from that in 
use, without having double forms in the rest of the cases ; 
thus, γυγή, γυναικός, as from γύναιξ ; γόνυ, γόνατος, as from 
γόνας ; δόρυ, δόρατος, as from δόρας ; ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, as from ὕδας. 
So also Ζεύς, Dios or Ζηνός, as from Ais or Ζήν. There are 
commonly reckoned ten different forms for the nominative 
Ζεὺς, viz. Ζεὺς, Βδεὺς, devs, Alo, Shy, dav, Ζὴς, Ziv, Zac, Ζὰν. 
These, however, differ only in dialect, and may be reduced to 
two, dis and Ζήν, and-yet even these nominatives are obsolete. 

5* 


46 


4, Some double forms of cases pre-suppose 
only one form of the nominative, which, how- 
ever, are declined according to two different de- 
clensions, or different kinds of one declension. 
These are called Heteroclita. In this manner are 
declined, ἃ 


1. After the first and third declension, substantives in 7s, 
yet only in the accusative and vocative ; thus, Σωκράτης of 
the third declension, makes Σωκράτην after the first, and Sw- 
κράτη after the third. So also ’Agatopéryy and ᾿“ριστοφάνη, 
from ᾿“ριστοφάνης ; and, in the vocative, Steswlady after the 
first, and Sroewladys after the third, from Sreewladys. ‘The 
Ionians especially declined different nouns of the first declen- 
sion after the third ; as δεσπότεα, and δεσπότεας, for δεσπότην, 
δεσπότας, from δεσπότης : so also κυδερνήτεα for κυθδερνήτην ; 
Πέρσεα for Πέρσην. 

2. Sometimes a noun is declined after different forms of 
the same declension ; as ἔγχελυς, which was declined by the 
Attics in the singular, ἔγχελυος, ἔγχελυι, &c. and in the plural 
ἐγχέλεις éyyehéwr. 

Obs. Other changes are not founded upon the circumstance 
of the form of the nominative being capable of a double in- 
flexion. ‘The number also of obsolete forms of nominatives 
would be’ too much increased, if, for every deviation, another 
form, grown into disuse, should be referred to. It seems more 
probable, that the proper termination of the case was some- 
times changed into the termination of the same case in another 
declension, which might easily take place in a language not 
as yet perfectly established and fixed. ‘This change is called 
μεταπλασμὸς κλίσεως, a transformation of the termination of the 
case. The following are the principal kinds of Metaplasm. 

1. Proper names in —xdog are often declined like those 
in ---κλῆς, and again those in —zAjs like those in —xAoc. 

2. Some nouns of the first and second declension have, 
particularly in the dative and accusative singular, and in the 
genitive also, the termination of the third declension ; thus 
we find didog, ἄϊδι, in Homer, for ἀΐδου, «tidy; so also ἀλκέ for 
ἀλκῇ κλαδί for κλάδῳ, &e. 

3. In the same manner the plural of different neuters in ον, 
particularly the dative, is formed after the third declension, 
as ἀνδραπόδεσσι for ἀνδραπόδοις, πρόβασι for προβάτοις, προ- 
σώπατα and προσώπασι for πρόσωπα and προσώποις. 

4. The A®tolians, an Afolic tribe, formed the nouns of the 


' ae τα : 
ΞΖ rs ao “τ-:- eT ree 
4 : 


third declension, in the plural, after the second ; as, γερόντοις 
for γέρουσι, from γέρων ; παθημάτοις for παθήμασι, from παθήμα; 
as the Latins also said, epigrammatis, dilemmatis, for epigram- 
matibus, dilemmatibus. 


5. Some nouns are indeclinable. 


Obs. These are, 1. Names of letters, as τὸ ἄλφα, τοῦ ἄλφα, 
τῷ ἄλφα, &c. 2. The cardinal numbers from πέντε to ἑκατὸν, 
3. Poetic nouns which have lost the last syllable by apocope, 
τὸ δὼ for δῶμα, τὸ κάρα for κάρηγον. 4. Foreign names which 
are not susceptible of Greek inflexions, as ὁ "Abgadu, τοῦ 
᾿Αβραάμ, ὧς. 


6. Some are defective in the number of their 
cases. 


Obs. These are, 1. Monoptots, as, τὸ dpedoc, and τὸ ἦδος, 
advantage, only used as nominatives ; μάλης genitive of μάλη 
for μασάλη, a shoulder, which case is alone in use ; δώς, a house, 
used only in the nominative ; ὦ τάν, friend, used only in the 
vocative ; ὦ πόποι, O Gods, used only in the same case. 2. 
Diptots, as, ὄναρ, a vision, ὕπαρ, a real appearance, used only in 
the nominative and accusative. λίς, a lion, used only in the 
nominative, and in the accusative λῖν or dive, 3. Triptots, as, 
α. ἀλλήλων, Τὴ). ἀλλήλοις, og, ovc, A. ἀλλήλους, as, «. So also 
N. Dual ἄμφω, G. and D. ἀμφοῖν. 


7. Some have no singular, others no plural. 


Obs. The following want the singular. 1. Such as in their 
nature, cannot well occur in more than one number; as, τὰ 
ἔγκατα, the entrails, αἱ ἐτήσιαι, the Etesian winds. 2. Names 
of Festivals, as τὰ Ζιονύσια, the feast of Bacchus: 3. Names 
of Cities, as ᾿4θήναι, Athens. The following want the plural, 
viz. ἅλς, salt, γῆ, earth, πῦρ, fire, and many others, known by 
the sense. 


PATRONYMICS. 


Patronymics are substantives which signify a 
son or a daughter. They are derived from the 
proper name of the father, and sometimes also, 
from that of the mother. The rules for their 
formation follow. | 


Rute 1. From nouns in ος of the second declension come 
the forms of patronymics in ἰδῆς and (wy; as from Κρόνος come 
Κρονίδης and Κρονίων, the son of Kronos, i.e. Jupiter. So 
also, Κοδρίδης, Τανταλίδης, Aiaxidys, from Κόδρος, Τάνταλος, 
«ἴακος. ‘The form in (wy was peculiar to the Τοπίδη8. 

Rue 2. From nouns in τος comes the form ἐάδης ; 85, “Ἤλιος, 
“Ἡλιάδης ; "γνιος,᾿ 4γνιάδης ; ᾿ΑΙσκλήπιος, ᾿“σκληπιάδης. So 
also, “αερτιάδης from «““αέρτιος for Δαέρτης. A deviation from 
this rule is ᾿.“λκείδης from ᾿“λκαῖος, instead of which the form 
᾿4λκέυς appears to have been also used. Pindar has ’Adzatdyc. 
(Ol. 6. 115.) | 

Rute 3. From nouns in ης and ac, of the first declension, 
comes the form in ἀάδης ; as, ᾿Ἱππότης, “Ιπποτάδης ; * Ahedac, 
‘Asevédyc. From nouns in ἃς the Aolians formed patrony- 
mics in άδιος ; as‘ Y¢edduoc, from“ V6 ac. 

Ruxe 4. In nouns of the third declension, the genitive 
serves as the basis of the derivation. If the penultima of the 
genitive be skort, the patronymic from os is formed in ἐδης ; 
as, “Ayapéuvoy, > Ayauturovos, ᾿“γαμεμνονίδης ; Anta, Δητόος, 
Ayroidns: if it be long, then in ἐάδης, as “μφιτρύων, ’ Augi- 
Tovwvos,’ “μφιτρυωνιάδης ; Τελαμών, Τελαμῶνος, Τελαμωνιάδης. 

Obs. 1. Hence nouns in εὖς, which in the Ionic have the 
genitive in joc, give rise to the patronymic form ηϊάδης, as 
“Πηλεύς, Πηλῆος, Πηληϊάδης; Περσεύς, Περσῆος, Περσηϊάδης. 
But since these have also the termination ἕως in the genitive, 
which continued the prevailing one in the Attic and in the 
common dialect, hence arose from Περσεύς Περσέως, Περσείδης. 
So also ᾽᾿Ζτρείδης, from ’Arosis. 

Obs. 2. 'The origin of the different forms in ἰδὴς and ἐάδης, 
was probably owing to the cultivation of the Greek language 
by means of the Hexameter verse, since neither Ayapeurds7- 
Ons, nor Τελαμῶντδης could enter into that measure. 

Obs. 3. The forms in ys, toridyc, and τωνιάδης, are often 
interchanged. The reason is, that of the proper names in ος 
another form in ἐὼν was used, which is properly the patrony- 
mic of the first. 

Obs. 4. Instead of the form in ἐάδης, the form in ἐδὴς also 
us used, particularly in Attic, as Alarvtidar,’Aluuamrvido, 4ε- 
οντέδαι. 

Obs. 5. A Doric form of patronymics was in @rdac, as 
᾿Επαμινώνδας. ; 

Rue 6. Patronymics of the female sex have the following 
terminations. 1. ιάς and ἰς ; as «4ητωϊάς, and «4ητωΐς, from 
Ants: so also Βρισηΐς from Βρισεύς, os ; Nygyts from Wygets, 
nog; *Athaytis from” -Athas, avtos. 2. In évy and svn; the 

" 


49 


latter when the primitive has + or v before the termination ος 
or wv; as’ Axolo.os, 4 κρισιώνη ; “Ηλεκτρύων, ᾿Ηλεκτρυώνη ; the 
former when the primitive has a consonant before the termina- 
tion og or us, as ““δρηστος, “δρηστίνη ; ?Rusavds, ᾿ξκεανίνη ; 
Ἱνηρεύς, ΙΝνηρίνη. 

Obs. Some nouns have the form only of patronymics with- 
out the signification, as MiAtddye,’Aguateidys, Εὐριπέδης, Σὲ- 
μωνίδης. Patronymics are also often interchanged with their 
primitives: thus, sometimes, .«“λεξανδρίδης for ᾿4λέξανδρος ; 
Σιμωνίδης for Σίμων ; “Augiteiwy for’ Augitgvaviddys. 


ADJECTIVES. 


Adjectives are declined like substantives. 
Declensions of Adjectives are three: 
The first of three terminations, 
The second of two ; 
The third of one. 


1. Adjectives of three terminations end in 


M. F. N 
0S, a, ov, 
ος, η, ον, 
ας, ‘aoa, av. 
as, αὐνα, αν. 
δις, δισα, 8». 
δις, δσσα, 8». 
NV, ELV, 6, 
ous, ουσα, ov, 
ous, ουσσα, ουν. 
υς, Eva, υ. 
υς, υσα, υν 
ων, ουσα, ov 
ων, ουσα, ouy, 
ων, won, wy, 
as, won, ως. 
ως, Via, os. 


_Adjectives in og pure and ρος make the femi- 
nine in a; Other adjectives in og make it in 7; 


thus, 


Singular. 
N. μακρὸς, &, ὃν, 
G. μακροῦ, ἂς, οὔ, 
D. μακρῷ, ᾷ, 9, 
A. μακρὸν, ἂν, ὃν, 


Ce eee ee τα ωμμὐδεν᾽: ΕΝ κω elit wl 
te, ν 


950 


μακρὸς, long. 
Dual. 


N. A. V. μακρὼ, ἁ, ὦ, 


“Ὁ. Ὁ. μακροῖν, atv, οἷν, 


Plural. 
Ν. μακροὶ, αἱ, ἁ, 
α. μακρῶν, dv, ὧν, 
Ὁ. μακροῖς, αἷς,οἷς, 
A. μακροὺς, ἃς, a, 


Ὑ. μακρὲ, ἃ, ὃν. | | Υ. μακροὶ, αἱ, ἀ. 
καλὸς, beautiful. 
Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. καλὸς, ἡ, ὁν, : N. καλοὶ, αἱ, ἁ, 
G. καλοῦ, ἧς, οὔ, | N. A. Υ. xada, ἀἁ, ὦ, 6. καλῶν, dy, dr, 
D. καλῷ, ἤἥ, ᾧ, ) D. καλοῖς, αἷς, οἷς, 
A. καλὸν, ὴν, ὃν, |G. Ὁ. καλοῖν, airy, οἷν. | A. καλοὺς, ἀς, a, 
Υ. καλὲ, 4, av. Υ. καλοὶ, αἱ, a. 


Four adjectives, ἄλλος, τηλίχουτος, τοίουτος, 
toooutoc: and four pronouns, ὃς relative, αὐτὸς 
and its compounds, οὗτος and ἐχεῖνος, make the 


neuter in ὁ. 


ας. 
πᾶς, all, μέλας, black. 
Singular. Singular. 
N. πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν, Ν. μέλας, aura, αν, 
6. παντὸς, πάσης, παντὸς, 6. μέλανος, αἰνῆς, νος, 
D. παντὶ, πάση, παντὶ, 1). μέλανι, alvyn, avn, 
A. πάντα, πᾶσαν, πᾶν, A. μέλανα, αὐναν, av, 
Ψ. πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν». Υ. μέλαν, avo, ay, 
Dual. Dual. 
N. A. V. πάντε, πάσα, πάντε, |N. A. V. μέλανες, αἰνα, ave, 
G. Ὁ. πάντοιν, πάσαιν͵ πάντοιν. G. Ὁ). μελάγνοιν, αἰναιν, drow, 
Plural. Plural. 
N. πάντες, πᾶσαι, πάντα, N. μέλανες, αἵναὶ, ave, 
G. πάντων, πασῶν, πάντων, |G, μελάνων, αινῶν, ἀνων, 
D. πᾶσι, πάσαις, πᾶσι, Ὁ. μέλασι, αἴναις, ἀσι, 
A. πάντας, πάσας, πᾶντα, [Ἃ. μέλανας, αἰνας, ave, 
Υ. πάντες, πᾶσαι, πάντα. Υ. μέλανες, arvor, ave, 


91 


ELC. 
τυφθείς, having been a ae 
AOLELC, COME 
struck. ἡ af Q 9: ly. 
Singular. Singular. 
N. τυφθείς, εἴσα, ἕν, ΠΝ. χαρίεις, soca, εν, 
G. τυφθέντος, εἰσῆς, évtos, | | G. χαρίεντος, ἐσσῆς, ὄντος, © 
D. τυφθέντι, elon, évt, D. χαρίεντι, goon, evr, 
A. τυφθέντα, εἴσαν, ἐν, A. χαρίεντα, δσσαν, Εν, 
Υ. τυφθείς, ἴσα, dv, Vv. χαρίει, or } ὅσσα, Sa 
χαρίεν, 


Dual. Dual. 


N. A. V. τυφθέντε, siaa, ἐντέ, | N. A. V. χαρίεντε, éoou, svte, 
G. Ὁ. τυφθέντοιν, εἰσαιν, ἐντοι».) G.D. χαριέντοιν, ἐσσαιν, ὄντοιν». 


Plural. Plural. 
N. τυφθέντες, εἴσαι, évta, N. χαρίεντες, εσσὰν, ὄντα, 
G. τυφθέντων, εισῶν, évtwy, | G. χαριέντων,͵ εσσῶν, ἔντων, 
D. τυφθεῖσι, εἰσαις, εἴσι, 1). χαρίδισι, ἔσσαις, δισε, 
A. τυφθέντας, δίσας, ἐντα, A. χαρίεντας, ἐσσας, ὄντα, 
V. τυφθέντες, εἴσαι, évto, V. χαρίεντες, scoot, ὄντα. 


NY. 


téony, tender. 


Singular. Dual. 
N. τέρην, δινα, ὃν, . ' 
G. τέρενος, δίνης, evos, N. A. V. té08v8, δένα, sve, 
D. tégem, δίνη, Ἔνι, 
A. tégeva, διναν, ὃν, 6. D. tegévosy, slyasy, ἕνουν, 
Υ. τέρεν, ea, ὃν. 


Η .΄ 


Plural. 


N. tégeves, εἰναι, ave, 
6. τερένων, εινῶν, ἔνων, 
Ὦ. τέρεσι, εἰναις, sor, 
A. τέρενας, sivas, sve, 
V. téosves, suvar, sve, 


_ ὧν 


i MT Ne | τ -- ἊΝ eee a) ΦΨ- 


52 


ους. 


δοὺς, having given. 


Singular. 
N. δοὺς, δοῦσα, ddr, 
Ὁ. δόντος, δούσης, δόντος, 
D. δόντι, δούση, δόντι, 
A. δόντα, δοῦσαν, ddr, 
Υ. δοὺς, δοῦσα, δὸν. 


Dual. 
N. A. γ. 


δούσα, δόντε, 
G. Ὁ. 


δόντοιν, Joico, δόντοιν. 


Plural. 
N. δόντες, δοῦσαι, δόντα, 
6. δόντων, δουσῶ», δόντων, 
D. δοῦσι, δούσαις, δοῦσι, 
Α. δόντας, δούσας, δόντα, 
Υ. δόντες, δοῦσαι, δόντα. 


. δόντα, 


“» 
ὀξὺς, sharp. 
Singular. 


N. ὀξὺς, sia, v, 

G. ὀξέος, δίας, dos, 

D. ὀξέϊ, εἴ, elqg, ἐϊ, εἴ, 

A. ὀξὺν, εἴαν, ὑ, 

Υ. ὀξὺ, δῖα, ὺ. 
Dual. 


N. A. V. ὀξές, ela, ἐξ, 
G. D. ὀξέουν, stay, gov. 


Plural. 
N. ὀξέες, εἴς, sta, ἕα, 
6. ὀξέων, ey, ἕων, 
D. ὀξέσι, slag, σι, 


A. ὀξέας, εἴς, δίας, ἕα, 
V. ὀξέες, εἴς, star, ἕα. 


' 
Ἢ 


i 


mhanovc, flat. 
Singular. 


. πλακοῦς, οὔσσα, ovr, 

. πλακοῦντος, οὐσσῆης, οὔντος͵ 

. πλακοῦντι, οὐσση, οὔντι; 

. πλακοῦντα, οὔσσαν, ovr, 
πλακοῦν, 

* πλακοῦ, 


»Ό ῶΩ Ζ 


< 


or . οὔσσα, ovr. 


Dual. 
N..A. V: 
πλακοῦντε, οὖσσα, οὔντδ, 


πλακούντοιν, οὐσσαιν, οὐντουν. 


Plural. 
N. πλακοῦντες, οὔσσαι, οὔντα, 
G. πλακούντων, ουσσῶν, οὐντων, 
D. πλακοῦσι, ούσσαις, οὔσι, 
A. πλακοῦντας, οὐσσας, οὔντα, 
V. πλακοῦντες, οὔσσαν, οὔντα. 


ζευγνὺς, joining. 


Singular. 
N. ζευγνὺς, σα, dy, 
6. ζευγνύντος, dons, ύντος, 
D. ζευγνύντι, toy, ὕντι, 
Α. ζευγνύντα, ὕσαν, ὑν, 
V. ζευγνὺς, σα, dy, 


Dual. 
N. A. V. ζευγνύντε, toa, ύντε, 
G. Ὁ. ζευγνύντοιν͵ boas, ύντοιν». 


Plural, 
Ν. ζευγνύντες, too, ὄντα, 
6. ζευγνύντων, υσῶν, ύντων, 
Ὁ. ζευγνύσι, ὕὃσαις, ὕσι, 
A. ζευγνύντας, ύσας, ὄντα, 
Υ. ζευγνύντες, tous, ὕντα. 


53 


WY. 


éxov, willing. 
Singular. 


N. ἑκὼν, οὖσα, ὃν, 
G. ex ὄντος, οὔσης, rack 
1). ἑκόντι, obey, ὀντι, 
Α. inévee, οὔσαν, ὃν, 
V. ἑκὼν, οὖσα, bx, 
Dual. 
N. A. V. ἑκόντε, oboe, ὄντε, 
G. Ὁ. ἑκόντοιν, οὐσαιν, ὀντουν. 


Plural. 
N. ἑκόντες, οὖσαι, ὄντα͵ 
α. ἑκόντων, ουσῶν, ὄντων, 
D. ἑκοῦσι, ούσαις; οὔσι, 
A. ἑκόντας, οὐσας, ὄντα, 
Υ. ἑκόντες, οὔσαι, ὀντα. 


τυπῶν, about striking. 
Singular. 


τυπῶν, οὔσα, οὔν, 
τυποῦντος, οὖὐσης, οὔντος, 
. τυποῦντι, οὐση, οὔντι, 
τυποῦντα, οὔὗσαν, οὔν, 
τυπῶν, οὖὔσα, ovr, 
Dual. 


A. V. τυποῦντε, oto, otrts, 
D. τυπούντοιν, οὐσαιν, obv tou 


Plural. 
τυποῦντες, οὔσαν, οὔντα, 
τυπούντων, ουσῶν, οὐντων, 
D. τυποῦσι, οὔσαις, οὔσι, 
A. τυποῦντας, οὔσας, οὔντα, 


Ν. 
G. 
D 
A. 
V. 
N. 
G. 
N. 
G. 


V. τυποῦντες, οὖσαι, οὔντα, 


τιμῶν, honouring. 


Singular, 
N. τιμῶν, Goa, or, 
6. τιμῶντος, dons, Grtos, 
D. τιμῶντι, don, Grt, 
A. τιμῶντα, ὥσαν, dy, 
V. τιμῶν, Goa, dr, 


Dual. 
N. A. V. τιμῶντϑο, doa, Gyre, 


|G. D. τιμῶντοιν, doa, ὦντοιν-. 


Plural. 


Ν. τιμῶντες, Goa, 


ὥντα, 


. τιμώντων, ὡσῶν, ὦντων, 


doo, Gov, 


. τιμῶντας, Goas, ὥντα, 


G 
D. τιμῶσι, 
A 
Vv 


+ τιμῶντες, Goat, 
WC. 


tetupac, having struck. 


Singular. 
N. τετυφὼς, υἷα, ὁς, 
G. τετυφότος, viac, dros, © 
D. τετυφότι, vig, dt, 
A. τετυφότα, υἷαν, ὃς, 
V τοτυφὼς, υἷα, dy. 


ὥντα. 


ἑστὼς, having stood. 
Singular. 


N. ἑστὼς, ὥσα, ὡς, 
G. ἑστῶτος, dons, Grog, 
D. ἑστῶτι, don, Ot, 
A. ἑστῶτα, ὥσαν, de, 


V. ἑστὼς, Goa, ὡς. 


Dual. ~ Dual. 
N. A. V. τετυφότε, via, dre, N. A. V. ἑστῶτε, doa, Ste, 
G. D τετυφότοιν, vicar, drow. | G. D. ἑστώτοιν, ὦσαιν, drow. 


Plural. Plural. 
N. τετυφότες, viav, dra, . ἑστῶτες, Goo, Gra, 
6. τετυφότων, υἱῶν, ὅτων, . ἑστώτων, ὡσῶν, ὠὦτων, 
D. τετυφόσι, υἱαῖς, oot, . ἑστῶσι, ὦσαις, ὥσι, 
A. τετυφότας, υἱας,» ὁτα, . ἑστῶτας, ὦσας, Gre, 
Υ͂. τετυφότες, view, dra. . ἑστῶτες, ὥσαι, re. 


<r Ὀῷ Ζ 


2. Adjectives of two terminations end in, 


M. F. N. 
oS, ov, 
ας, ay, 
nv, 8». 
785 ὃς, 
ἐς, 4, 
ous, our, 
vs, υ, 
ων, ov, 
wo, 09, 
ως, OY. 


ἔνδοξος, glorious. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. N. 
N. ἔνδοξος, ον, N. ἔνδοξοι, α, 
6. ἐνδόξου, N.A. V. ἐνδόξω, | G. ἐνδόξων, 
D. ἐνδόξῳ, Ὁ. ἐνδόξοις, 
Α. ἔνδοξον, G. D. ἐνδόξοιν. A. évddfous, a, 
V. ἔνδοξε, ον. Υ. ἔνδοξοι, α. 


ἀείνας, perpetual, 


Singular. Dual. Plural. 
N. N. 
N. delvas, αν, N. ἀεέναντες, ἄντα, 
G. ἀείναντος, N. A. Υ. ἀείναντε, ἰ G. ἀειναντῶν, 
D. ἀείναντι, ᾿ Ὦ. ἀδίνασι, 


A. ἀείναντα, αν, |G, D, ἀδινάντοιν. | A, ἀείναντας, arta, 
V. ἀείναν. Υ. ἀείναντες, αντα. 


sr 0Q24 


<P 5O2Z 


. ἀληθὴς, 

. ἀληθδος, ods, 
. ἀληθέϊ, 
. ἀληθέά, ἢ, ὃς, 
. ἀληθές. 


<4>vaz 


<PUaZ 


Zs Ve ean 
“ " 


Singular. 
N. 
ὃς, 


δῖ, 


θῦ 


ἄῤῥην, male. 
Dual. 


| 


N.A. V. ἀῤῥενε, 


G. D. ἀῤῥέόνοιν. 


ἀληθὴς, true. 
Dual. 


N.A. V. ἀληθέε, ἢ, 
G. D. ἀληθέοιν, οἷν. 


Plural. 
N. 


Plural. 
N. 
N. ἀληθέες, εἴς, go, 7, 
G. ἀληθέων, ὧν, 
D. ἀληθέσι, 
A. ἀληθέας, sis, do, ἢ, 
Υ. ἀληθέες, sic, da, ἢ. 


εὔχαρις, acceptable, 


Singular. 
N 


. δὔχαρις, t, 
. εὐχάριτος, 

. δὐχάριετι, 

. εὐχάρυτα, LY, b, 


δὔχαρι. 


Dual. 


N.A. V. δύχαριτε, 


G. Ὁ. εὐχαρέτοιν. 


Pifal. “Fi 
abe 
δὐχάριτες, «τα. * 
δὐχαρίτων, 
δὐὔχάρισι, 
εὐχάριτας, eta, 
V. δὐχάριτες, ιτα. 


Ν. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


δίπους, two footed, 


Singular. 
N 


δίπους, ουν 


. δέποδος, 
. δίποδι, 


δίποδα, ουν, ουν, 


. δίπους, ov, ovr. 


Singular. 
N. 


. ἄδακρυς, v, 
. ἀδάκρυος, 

. ἀδάκρυι, 

. ἄδακρυν, v 


. ἄδακρυ. 


Dual. 


N.A. V. δίποδε, 
G. D. δεπόδοιν. 


Plural. 
N 


δίποδες, oda, 
διπόδων, 
δίποσι, 
δίποδας, οδα, 
. δίποδος, oda. 


N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 


<j 


ἄδακρυς, tearless. 


Dual. 


N. A. V. ἀδάκρυε, 
6. Ὁ. ἀδακρύοιν. 


Plural. 


ἀδάκρυες, 
ἀδακρύων, 
ἀδάκρυσι, 
Α. ἀδάκρυας, 
Υ. ἀδάκρυες, 


Ν. US, Ua, 
G. 

D. 

US, υα, 
US, YO, 


Singular. 
N. 


N. σώφρων, 
G. σώφρονος, 
Ὦ. σώφρονι, ἕ 
A. σώφρονα, ον, 
Υ. σῶφρον». ° 


ov, 


56 
σώφρων, discreet. 
Dual. Plural. 
N. 
N. σώφρονες, ova, 
N, A. V. σώφρονε, | G. σωφρόνων, 
Ὁ. σώφροσι, 
α. D. σωφρόνοιν. | A. σώφρονας, ove, 


< 


. σώφρονες, OVE, 


we 


μεγαλήτωρ, magnanimous. 


Singular. 
N 


N. μεγαλήτωρ, 
G. μεγαλήτορος, 
D. μεγαλήτορι, 
A. μεγαλήτορα, 09, 
Υ. μεγάλητορ. 


99, 


Singular. 
N. 
Ν. εὔγεως, ὧν, 
6. εὔγεω, 
D, εὔγεῳ, 
A. εὔγεων, 
Υ. εὔγεως, wv. 


. 


Dual. 


N.A. V. μεγολήνοροῇ 


6. Ὁ. μεγαλητόροιν. 


Plural. 
N. 
N. μεγαλήτορες, ορα, 
6. μεγαλητόρων, 
D. μεγαλήτορσι, 
A. μεγαλήτορας, oga, 
Υ. μεγαλήτορες, oge. 


εὔγεως, fertile. 

Dual. Plural. 
N. 
N. εὔγεῳ, ὦ, 

Ν. Α. Υ. εὔγεω, G. εὔγεων, 

D. εὔγεφς, 
α. Ὁ. δὔγεῳν. A. δοὔγεως, ὦ, 
Υ. εὔγεῳ, o. 


DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES. 


Comparatives are declined in the same manner with σώφρων, 
except that in the Accusative singular, and the Nominative 
Accusative and Vocative plural, they syncopate and contract: 


thus, 


eilwy, greater. 
μ 18 


Singular. 


N. μείζων, 
G. μείζονος, 
D. μείζονν, 


μείζον, 


N.A.V. 


Dual. 


μεέζονϑ, 


A. μείζονα, μείζοα, μείζω, μείζον, 6. Ὁ. μειζόνοιν. 


Υ͂. μείζον. 


ν᾿ ov 


Ἶ Plural. 
N. 
Ν. μείζονες, uslfoes, μείζους, μείζονα, μείζοα, ustto, 
6. μείζόνων, 
D. μείζοσι, 
A. μείζονας, μείζοας, μείζους, μείζονα, μείζοα, μείζω, 
Vv. μείζονες, μδίζοδς, μείζους, μείζονα, μείζοα, μείζω. 


. Adjectives of one termination are the Cardi- 
nal numbers from πέντε to ἑκατὸν, both inclusive. 
Others are Masculine and Feminine only; such 
are, 1, Adjectives compounded with substantives 
which remain unchanged, as waxgozerg, αὐτό χείρ, 
εὔριν, μαχραίων, μαχραύχην, from χεὶρ, ῥὲν, ἀιὼν, 
and αὐχὴν ; except those compounded with ποῦς 
and πόλις. 2. ‘Those derived from πατὴρ and 

μήτηρ ; AS ἀπάτωρ, ἀμήτωρ, ὁμομήτωρ. 3. Ad- 
jectives in NS, τος, and ὡς, ὠτος ; as ἀδινὴς, ἡμιθ- 
νὴς, ἀγνὴς, ἀγνὼς. 4. Adjectives ending in’é, or 
ψ; as Hus, μώνυξ, αἰγίλιψ, αἴθιοψ. ὅ. Adjectives 
In ac, αδος, and 1c, Wocg; as ὃ, ἡ, φυγὰς ; ὃ, 1, 
ἄναλκις. ‘The greater number, however, are 
found only with substantives of the feminine 
gender. 


IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 


Μέγας and πολὺς have only the Nominative 
Accusative and Vocative Masculine and Neuter 
of the Singular, and borrow the other cases from 
μεγάλος, ἡ; ov, and πολλὸς, ἡ, dy: thus, - 


Méyac, great. 
Singular. 
N. META, μεγάλη, ΜΕ ΓΑ, 
G. μεγάλου, ης, ου, Dual. 
D. μεγάλῳ, η, ῳ, N.A. V. μεγάλω, a, ω, 


A. MET AN, μεγάλην, META, [|. Ὁ. μεγάλοιν, ory, ovr. 
V. META, μεγάλη, META. 
6* 


Ν. μεγάλοι, at, α, 
G. μεγάλων, wv, wr, 
D. μεγάλοις, aus, org, 
A. μεγάλους, as, a, 
A. μεγάλοι, ot, α. 


ON much. 


Sin 
N. ΠΟΑῪΣ, tat 104°, | ‘ 
6. πολλοὺ, ἧς, οὐ, Dual. 
D. πολλὰ, ὴ, 0, N. A. V. πολλὼ, &, 0, 
A. HOA'YN, πολλὴν, ΠΟΜΑΜῪ, |G. Ὁ πάλιν, air, οἷν». 
ὙΟΌ ΠΟΑῪ, πολλὴ, ΠΟΑῪ. 


Plural. 
. πολλοὶ, al, &, 
. πολλὼν, ὧν, ὧν, 
. πολλοὶς, ais, οἷς,» 
. πολλοὺς͵ ἃς, ay, 
. πολλοὶ, αἱ, ἀ. 


SF OQ 


Remarks on Adjectives of Three Terminations. 
1. Termination in os. 


Obs. 1. Adjectives in ος pure, and ρος, have the feminine 
in 7 in the Ionic dialect ; thus, φίλιος, α, ov, in Attic, becomes 
φίλιος, ἡ, ov, in Ionic ; and μακρὸς, α, ov, in Attic, is μακρὸς, 7, 
ov, in Ionic. 

Obs. 2. Some Adjectives in δος, expressing a substance or 
material, are contracted into ovs; thus, 


N. χρύσεος, ἢ χρυσέα, ἢ χρυσεόν, 
Contr. ζρυσοῦς, ‘ χρυσῆ, ὲ χρυσοῦν, ὲ 
6. χρυσέου, ἡ χρυσέας, 2 χρυσέου, 
Contr. χρυσοῦ, oka pain &e. , 
When another vowel or the letter @ precedes the termination 
os, the feminine is contracted not into 7, but into ἃ, as, 


δρέεος, woollen, contr. ἐρεοῦς, ἐρεᾶ, ἐρεοῦν. 
ἀργύρεος, silver, contr. ἀργυροῦς, ἀργυρᾶ, ἀργυροῦν, 
The neuter plural, however, always has α; as τὰ χρύσεα, 
contracted χρυσᾶ ; τὰ ἀργύρεα, contracted ἀργυρᾶ. 
Obs. 3. Adjectives i in 60g make 7 in the feminine, as ὄγδοος, 
ὄγδοη, ὄγδοον, the eighth ; θόος, θοή, θόον, swift. But if ᾧ pre- 


99 


cede, they have α; as ἀθρόος, ἀθρόα, ἀθρόον, frequent ; ἀθροῦς, 
noiseless, is a different form, viz. 6, 7, ἀθροῦς, τὸ ἀθροῦν. 

Obs. 4. Some adjectives in dog are contracted Ito οὖς : as 
ἁπλόος, διπλόος, ὅδε. These uniformly contract o7 into 4, and 
oa into ἃ: thus, 

M. ἐδ Ν. 
Sing. N. ἁπλόος, : ἁπλόη, ἡ ἁπλόον, ὶ 
Contr. ἁπλοῦς, 4 ἁπλῆ, ὶ ἁπλοῦν. 
Pl. Ν. ἁπλόοι, 2 ἁπλόαι, ἡ ἁπλόα, 
Contr. ἁπλοῖ, ὲ ἁπλαῖ, Suave ὲ 


The compounds of πλοῦς, navigation, form a class of adjec- 
tives totally distinct, and must not be confounded with the nu- 
merical adjectives in πλοῦς, Thus, 6, ἡ, ἄπλους, unnavigable; 
6, ἡ, εὔπλους, easy to sail into, &c. These are adjectives of 
two terminations, and form the neuter singular in ovy, and the 
neuter plural in oa, 


2. Terminations in δὲς and ους. 


Obs. 1. Most of the adjectives of this termination have, in 
the penultima, the vowels, 7, 0, ὦ ; as τιμήεις, αἱματόεις, κητώ- 
sig; even χαρίεις must have arisen from χαριτόεις. 

Obs. 2. The terminations ἥδις and ders, are often contract-— 
ed; viz. jets, ήξσσα, yer, into ἧς, jooa, ἣν, and devs, ὀεσσα, der, 
into οὖς, οὔσσα, οὖν : thus, 

Ν. τιμῇς, τιμῆσσα, τιμὴν ; G. τιμῆντος, τιμῆσσης, &c. from 
τιμήεις, NETOA, HEY. 

N. μελιτοῦς, μελιτοῦσσα, μελιτοῦν ; G. μελιτοῦντος, μελιτοῦσσης, 
&c. from μελιτόδις, ὀεσσα, dev, 

Obs. 3. πλακοῦς is a contracted form from πλακόεις. When 
it signifies a flat cake, it has ἄρτος understood. vid. Bos. El- 
lips. Gr. 


3. Terminations in vs, ra, v. 


Obs. 1. The termination of the feminine εἴα is, in Ionic, 
ga; as ὀξέα, ἡδέα, for ὀξεῖα, ἡδεῖα :—some adjectives of this 
termination, have in the accusative, δὰ for vv; as δὐθέα, for 
δὐθύν ; εὐρέα, for δὐρύν, 

Obs. 2. In the accusative plural, the uncontracted form is 
as much used in Attic as the contracted; as τοὺς ἡμέσεας, Xen. 
Cyrop. 2. Later Greek writers contract the genitive also, as 
ἐξ ἡμίσους, Dio Chrysost. 7. p. 99. The neuter plural is very 
rarely contracted. We have, however, in T’heophrastus, Cha- 
ract. 2. ἡμίση. 

Obs. 3. These adjectives in vs are also sometimes used as 


\ 


cs eee He 


60 


common ; as θῆλυς ἐέρση, Od. ἐ, 467. ἡδὺς αὐτμή, Od. μ', 369 
τὰς ἡμισέας (for ἡμισείας) τῶν νεῶν, Thucyd. 8. 8. ἡμίσεος ἡμέ- 
ρας, 14. 4. 104. 

᾿ Obs. 4. In πρέσθυς, instead of the obsolete πρέσδεια, the 
feminine in use is πρέσδειρα and πρέσδθα. ‘The former occurs, 
Hom. H. in Ven. 32. Eurip. Iphig. T. 963. Aristoph. Acharn. 
883. The latter, Jl. é, 721, and elsewhere. 


. 4. ‘Termination in ὧν. 


Obs. Gv, Goa, GY; and ὥν, οὔσα, οὖν ; are both contracted 
forms : thus, tyuéw» contracted τιμῶν, τιμαόυσα contr. τιμῶσα, 
τιμάον contr. τιμῶν : this is the form of the present participle 
of contracted verbs. And again, τυπέσων the eldest form, 
Ionic τυπέων, Attic τυποῦν. Feminine τυπέσουσα, τυπέουσα, 
ἐυποῦσα, Neuter τυπέσον, τυπέον, τυποῦν, &c. ‘This is the form 
of what is called the second future participle, which will be 
treated of more at large under the verb. 


5. Termination in we. 


Obs. Some cite πλέως, πλέα, πλέων, as an adjective in ὡς of 
three terminations ; πλέα, however, does not come from πλέως, 
but from the old πλέος, whence came πλέον, Eurip. Alcest. 730. 
and instead of which Homer and Hesiod have πλεῖος. The 
same remark applies to the feminine and neuter plural, πλέαι 


‘ and πλέα. 


Remarks on Adjectives of Two Terminations. 
1. Termination in os. 


Obs. 1. To this class belong particularly compound adjec- 
tives, as, 6, ἡ, ἀθάνατος ; 6, 4, ἀκόλαστος, &c. But not adjec- 
tives which are derived from compound words ; as ἐπιδεικτικός, 
4, ὀν, from ἐπιδείκνυμι; εὐδαιμονικός, 4, dv, from δὐδαίμων. 

Obs. 2. The Grammarians call it an Attic usage, when an 
adjective is found in o¢ of two terminations. It is indeed a 
peculiar feature of that dialect, although not exclusively con- 
fined to it, for the usage occurs also in Homer. 


2. Termination in ἧς. 


Obs. 1. From μουνογδνής comes the feminine mouvoyévera in 
the Poets; so also ἠριγένδια, an epithet of Aurora; Kumgoyé- 


61 


γδια, of Venus; Τριτογένεια, of Minerva. ᾿Ηριγενής as femi- 
nine occurs in Apollon. Rhod. 2. 450. 

Obs. 2. Many compounds in ἧς, particularly those in τῆς» 
have only one termination, and follow the first declension ; as 
γνεφεληγερέτης, ἀκακήτης, ἀκερσεκόμης, dc. Jn the old lan- 
guage, and in A#olic and Doric, the termination in te was 
used ; as ἱππότα, γεφδληγερέτα, ἀκηκήτα, ὅζο. 


2. Termination in ἐς. 


Obs. The compound adjectives of, this termination are 
mostly declined like the substantives from which they come ; 
as from χάρις, χάριτος, comes δὔχαρις, δὐχάριτος. The com- 
pounds of πόλεις, however, have in the genitive δος; as ἄπο- 
dic, ἀπόλιδος. In the accusative they have α and »; as ἀπόλι- 
da and ἄπολι». 


4. Termination in ovs. 


Obs. 1. The compounds in ovg of three terminations, have 
already been treated of. With regard to compounds of two 
terminations, it must be observed, that in the case of the 
compounds of ποῦς, (which are all of only two terminations, 
and properly make ποδός in the genitive after the third de- 
clension,) the Attics often use the second declension ; as τοῦ 
πολύπου, τὸν πολύπουν, τοὺς πολύπους : this peculiar Attic form is 
given in the declension of δίπους, in the accusative and vo- 
cative only, as it is of more frequent occurrence in those two 
cases. 

Obs. 2. Compounds in ovs of two terminations, like those 
in ἐς, follow the declension of the substantive of which they 
are compounded.. The compounds of ποῦς have been men- 
tioned in Obs. 1. So also, ἀγόδους, ἀνόδοντος, from ὀδοὺς, 
ὀδόντος ; δὔγους, δὔνου, from γοῦς, vod, dic. 


5. Termination in vs. 


Obs. The compound adjectives in vs, which are derived 
from δάκρυ, occur only in the nominative and accusative sin- 
gular, in the rest of the cases the form vtoc is used ; as ddax- 
gitov, ἀδακρύτῳ, ἅτε. The declension of ἄδακρυς, therefore, 
as given by Valpey, is rather to be considered as an exercise 
for the student, in forming cases by analogy, than a list of 
forms which actually occur. 


6. Termination in we. 


Obs. 1. Adjectives in ὡς of this termination, sometimes form 
the neuter also in ὦ; as ἀγήρως, neuter ἀγήρων and ἀγήρω. 


62 


Obs. 2. The compounds of γέλως, γέλωτος, commonly for- 
sake the declension of this substantive and follow the Attic 
second declension: so also those which are formed from «é- 
ρας, κέρᾶτος, with a change of the « intow. Both, however, 
have the genitive ὠτὸς also; thus, φιλόγελως, δέκερως ; neutr. 
ay; gen. w and wos. 


Remarks on Adjectives of One Termination. 


Obs. 1. Some were*used also with neuter substantives, in all 
the cases except the nominative and accusative singular and 
plural; as φοιτάσι σπιτεροῖς, Eurip. Phen. 1052. μαγιάσιν λυσσή- 
μασιν, Or. 264. Some were used only as masculine ; as γέρων, 
and adjectives in ας and 7s of the first declension ; as γεννάδας, 
ἐθελοντής. The feminine forms of πρέσδυς and μάκαρ were 
σρέσδειρα and μάκαιρα, 

Obs. 2. The neuter, which is deficient, is supplied when 
necessary by derivative or kindred forms, as βλακικόν, ἀρπακ- 
τικόν, μώνυχον, ὁμομήτριον, ἀγνωστόν, μαινόμενον, δρομαῖον, Sc. 
So the feminine of γέρων is supplied by γεραιά. 


Irregular Declension. 


Obs. From the old μεγάλος we have ὦ μεγάλε Ζεῦ, in As- 
chylus Sept. c. Th. 824. The forms πολλός, πολλόν, are Ionic ; 
the regular forms of πολύς occur in the Epic writers ; thus πο- 
Agog, Il. δ΄, 244. ἐ, 597. The accusative singular.masculine 
and neuter, passim. Nominative plural masculine πολέες, 1]. 
β΄, 610, &c. and πολεῖς, 1]. λ΄, 707. genitive pl. πολέων, II. é, 
691. 6, 680, &c. dative, πολέσι, 11. 0’, 388. accusative πολέας, 
Il. &,559. also πολεῖς, Il. 6, 66. The nominative πολλός, and 
accusative πολλόν, however, also occur in Homer. ‘The re- 
gular forms of πολύς are occasionally met with also in the 
Dramatic writers. 


DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 


Since adjectives show the properties or quali- 
ties of objects, they may also be so changed as 
to exhibit, by their inflexion, a higher or the 
highest degree in which an object possesses those 
properties. These inflexions are called a ll 
of Comparison, of which there are two, the Com- 


63 


parative and the Superlative. The Positive is the 
proper determination of the adjective, and can- 
not properly be considered as a degree of Com- 
parison, since it expresses none. 

1. The Comparative is most usually formed by” 
the addition of tegoc, the Superlative by the ad- 
dition of τατος, to the Nominative; as μακὰρ, 
μακάρτερος, μαχάρτατος. 


1. Adjectives in os drop ¢ before these terminations. If the 
penultima of the positive be long, ο remains unchanged; as 
ἄτιμος, ἀιτμότερος, ἀττμότατος ; δεινὸς, δεινότερος, δεινότατος. If, 
however, the penult be short, ois changed into w; as σοφός, 
σοφώτερος, σοφώτατος ; στενός, στενώτερος, στενώτατος. 

2. Adjectives in δὺς change evs into ἕστερος, ἕστατος ; as χα- 
ρίεις, χαριέστερος, χαριέστατος ; τιμήεξις, τιμηέστερος, τιμηέστατος. 

3. Adjectives in ας, ἧς, and vs, annex τερος and τατος to the 
termination of the neuter; as μέλας, μελάντερος, ushdvtatos ; 
ἀηδής, ἀηδέστερος, ἀηδέστατος ; δὐρύς, εὐρύτερος, δὐρύτατος. 

4, Adjectives in wy and 4”, add τερος and τατος to the Nom. 
Plur. Masc. as σώφρων, σωφρονέστερος, σωφρονέστατος ; τέρην, 
TEQEVEDTEQOS, τερδνέστατος. 

5. Adjectives in § make lotegos and lotatos, as ἅρπαξ, (ἅρ- 
mays,) ἁρπαγίστερος, ἁρπαγίστατος ; βλάξ, (βλάκς) βλακίστερος, 
βλακίστατος. 

6. The Attics compare many other adjectives by lotegos, 
lotatos; αἰτερος, altatos ; ἐστερος, ἐστατος, In the two last this 
is done by the Ionic and Doric dialects ; thus, 


λάλος, Aahiotegos, λαλέστατος 
σιτωχός, πτωχίστερος. 

λάγνος, λαγνίστατος. 
ψευδής, ψευδίστατος. 
πλεονέκτης, πλεονδκτίστατος. 
μέσος, μδσαίτατος, 
ἴσος, ἰσαίτερος. 

ἥσυχος, ἡσυχαίτερος. ἱ 
πλησίος, πλησιαίτατος, 
ὕᾳδιος, ῥᾳδιέστερος. 

ἄφθονος, αφθονέστερος. 

σπουδαῖος, σπουδαιέστατος, 


ἐῤῥωμένος, ἐῤῥωμενέστερος, 


hee υὴ 


64 


Observations. 


Obs. 1. The change of the short o into , in adjectives 
which end in og and have a short penult, was probably caused 
by the conditions of the Hexameter verse, by means of which 
the Greek language was first formed; since otherwise four 
short syllables would come together. This rule, however, 
could not have been observed in καχοξεινώτερος, (Hom. Od. 4, 
376.) nor in ὀϊζυρώτερον, (II. ρ΄, 446.) since a measure would 
thus have been produced equally incompatible with Hexameter 
verse. 

Obs. 2. In some adjectives o or w is rejected before the 
termination of the comparative and superlative ; as, φίλος, φίλ- 
τερος, φίλτατος ; for φιλώτερος, φιλώτατος, which do not occur: 
φίλος, it will be remembered, however, has also the Attic forms 
φιλαέτερος, φιλαίτατος, and φιλίων, φίλιστος. ‘The ois also omit- 
ted in γεραίτερος, παλαέτερος, σχολαίτερος, &c. 

Obs. 3. The terminations éoteg0s, éotatos, contracted with 
the preceding vowel into ούστερος, ούστατος, were regularly 
used in adjectives in οος contracted ove, for o@tegos, οώτατος ; 


_ thus, εὐνοέστερος, contracted, evvotategos ; ἁπλοέστερος, ἁπλούσ- 


τδρος ; 50 also, xaxovototegos ; ἀθρούστερος. 

Obs. 4. The forms given under No. 6. are such as occur in 
the Attic, Ionic, and Doric writers. The student is not to 
imagine, however, that the other forms not given are wanting ; 
these may possibly have escaped as yet the notice of gram- 
marians, or, had we more remaining of the Greek writings, 
would very probably be found in them. 


II. Some adjectives form the Comparative in 
τῶν (neuter voy) and the Superlative in votog; as 
ἡδὺς, ἡδίων, ἡδίστος. ‘These Comparatives in τὼν 
have the penult /ong in the Attic dialect, but short 
elsewhere. 


1. Some adjectives ending in os, gos, ἧς, and ας, have the 
comparative in wy, and the superlative in votoc; as, 


τερπρὸς, τερπνίων, τέρπνιστος. 
κακὸς, κακίων, κάκιστος. 
φίλος, φιλίων, φίλιστος. 
αἰσχρὸς, αἰσχίων αἴσχιστος, 
ἐχθρὸς, ἐχθίων, ἔχθιστος. 
οἰκτρὸς, οἰκτίων, οἴκτιστος, 
μέγας, μέγιστος. 


ἐλεγχής, ἐλέγχιστος. 


Way RY - 


65 


Obs. 1. κακὸς makes also κακχωτερος, Il. χ', 106. 1’, 321. 
αἰσχρὸς makes atoygdregos, though less frequently than αἰσχίων: 
ἐχθρὸς makes also ἐχθρότατος. ‘To the adjectives above men- 
tioned may be added κυδρός, sup. κύδιστος ; μακρός, comp. μα- 
κίων, changed to μάσσω» (vid. Obs. 2.) sup. μήκιστος for μάκισ- 
τος; ‘Olivos, sup. ὀλίγιστος. 

Obs. 2. In some comparatives in sw, the « is changed, to- 
gether with the foregoing consonant or consonants into oa; 
in the new Attic dialect into tr; as ἐλαχύς, ἐλαχίων, changed 
to ἐλάσσων or ἐλάττων, ἐλάχιστος ; μέγας, μεγίων, changed to 
μέσσων, (in Herodotus μέζων, in Attic μείζων,) μέγιστος ; μακρός, 
μακίων changed to μάσσων, μήκεστος for μάκιστος ; κρατύς, κρα- 
τίων changed to κράσσων, (in Herodotus κρέσσων, in Attic κρε- 
loowy,) κράτιστος ; ταχύς (changed, on account of euphony, from 
its original form θαχύς) tayiwy (for θαχίων) changed to θάσσων,.. 
τάχιστος (for θάχιστος) : ταχύτερος and ταχύτατος are less Attic. 
The comparative ἥσσων or ἥττων, is in like manner changed 
from ἡκίων ; the positive is unknown, but we have a near ap- 
proximation to it in the Homeric adverb ἧλα, gently, in a very 
small degree, 

Obs. 3. The last particular worthy of notice is, that some 
of the adjectives in vs have other forms besides those in sw», 
catog; thus, γλυκὺς makes also γλυκύτερος; ταχύς, ταχύτερος 5 
βαθύς, Babitegos ; βραδὺς, βραδύτερος, Boadutdtos; βραδὺς, thus 
compared, was more Attic than βραδίων, βραδίστος. In like 
manner, βραχὺς forms sometimes βραχύτερος, βραχύτατος ; and 
ἥδυς make ἡδίων less frequently than ἡδύτερος. From ὠκύς and 
πρέσδυς come, in the comparative only, ὠκύτερος, πρεσβύτερος, 
but in the superlative ὥκιστος, πρέσβιστος. 


, war ΤΡ SPN 
fs: τ x 
Library ) : 


a Seed an 


al 


εἰ orn 18: feet 


a 


66 
Irregular Comparison. abe: 
Γ ἀμείνων, 
ἀρείων, ἄριστος. 
βελτίων, βελτιστος. 
βέλτερος, ο βελπάτος. 


κρείσσων, 


Good. ἀγαθὸς, ν ᾿ κρείττων, ὶ κράτιστος. 


. ΗΝ καρρῶν, 


λωΐων, λωΐστος. 
λῴων, λῷστος. 
φέρτατος. 
φέρτερος, ; φέριστος. 
é φέρτιστος. 
er vores pea Mangal βαθα, 
ad. ah at χερείων, χϑερίστος. 
χείρων, χείριστος. 
μακρότερος, μακροτάτος 
Long. μακρός, ; μάσσων, μήκιστος. 
μέσσων, 
Great. μέγας, ; μέζων, . μέγιστος. 
μείζων, : , 
Γ μικρότερος, 
μειότερος, - 
Small. μικρὸς, 4 μείων, μεῖστος. 
(ἐλαχὺς) ἐλάσσων, ο΄ ἐλάχιστος. 
| ἥσσων, ἥκιστος. 
λ 
Much. πολὺς, . ; ‘asia: ᾿ πλεῖστος. 
Easy. ῥάδιος, ὄζων, i ῥᾷστος. 


Remarks on the Irregular Comparisons. 
"Ayabos. 


Obs. 1. In the application of the several comparatives which 
have been given to this adjective, it must be understood to sig- 
nify not only good, but strong, and brave ; qualities which were 
thought the most desirable in the early ages of civilization. 
Thus, among the Romans, courage was thought the first and 
most manly virtue ; whence virtus from vir. ’Aya6ds among 
the early Greeks denoted one who was good at plundering, and, 
in conformity with its derivation from ἄγω, one good at leading 
off animate plunder, such us men, cattle, &c. Onthe contrary, 


. 


ΓΝ 


67 : 


φέρτερος, φέρτατος, were applied to one skilled in bearing off 
inanimate plunder, being derived from φέρω. Hence the Greek 
phrase ἄγδεν καὶ φέρειν, to plunder, which Livy (22, c.3.—38, 
c. 15.) has expressed by agere et ferre. The adjective κακὸς 
appears to be derived from κέκακα, the perfect middle of «dm, 
allied to xeiw, I sleep, I am inactive ; I sleep, or, am inactive, 
while others are abroad to the prey ; i.e. 1 ama coward, a bad man. 

Obs. 2. The proper comparative and superlative of ἀγαθὸς, 
are ἀγαθώτερος and ἀγαθώτατος. These, however, occur only 
in later writers and suchas are not Attic, as Diod. Sic. 16. 85. 
᾿“μείνων, according to Fischer, is for ἀμεγέων, from ἄμδνος, 
whence the Latin amenus.— Agsiwv, ἄριστος, are formed, in 
fact, from” Agus, Mars.—Bestlwy properly signifies, more saga- 
cious ; its usual Attic forms are βελτίων, βέλτιστος, though the 
others occur sometimes in the Attic poets.—Kgeloowr, κρείττων, 
have been mentioned already ; the form κάῤῥων is for the older 
xéoowv'; the true positive is κρατύς, brave, powerful.—Auwtur, 
λῴων, properly signifies more desirable. It is generally derived 
from 46, I will, I wish ; it may, however, have been formed 
from λωΐος, which occurs in Theocritus, and be put for λωϊέων. 
---Φέρτερος, &c. are usually formed from gsgw, (vid. Obs. 1.) : 
if, however, we imagine a positive pegs analogous to this, we 
shall have, 1. φερέστερος, φερέστατος, by syncope φέρτερος, pég- 
τατος. 2. (φερίων), pégeatoc. Fischer derives the former 
from φεδρτός, and considers them as contractions for φδρτότερος, 
φδρτότατος. 

Obs. 8. χείρων, χείριστος, appear to be altered from χερδίων. 
From the old positive χέρης, (probably the same originally 
with χερνης,} which has the sense of a comparative, inferior, 
(Jl. &, 80. 0’, 400.) a comparative yegelw» was derived, and a 
superlative χέριστος, as from dens, dgsiwmy, ἄριστος. From this, 
by transposition, came χείρων, yvelovotos. 

Obs. 4. The forms ῥῴων, @¢otos, assigned to ῥῴδιος, appear 
to have come from the old word ῥήϊος, of which the Lonic 
ῥηΐδιος, and Doric ῥαΐδιος, are merely lengthened forms. So 
in.the comparative, the oldest form was ῥηϊΐων, contracted to 
ῥηΐων, Doric ῥαΐων, Attic ῥῴων : and the superlative old form 
ῥήϊστος, Doric ῥάϊστος, Attic ῥᾷστος. There are other forms, 
however ; as, from δήϊος comes (ῥηϊότδρος) ῥηΐτερος, (Il. 0’, 258. 
d, 243,) Doric, ῥαΐτερος, δαίτερος, Pind. Ol. 8, 78. 


IV. Sometimes, particularly in the Poets, new 
comparatives and superlatives are derived from 
comparatives and superlatives already in use: 
thus, 


68 


Comparisons from the Comparative. 
χερείων, χερειότερος, λωΐων, λωΐτερος, 


χεέρων, χειρότερος; πρότερος, προτεραίτερος, 
μείων, μειότερος, ἄσσων, ἀσσότερος, 
ἀρείων, ἀρδιότερος, καλλίων, καλλιώτερος. 


Comparisons from the Superlative. 


ἐλάχιστος, ἐλαχιστότερος, | πρώτος, πρώτιστος, 
ἔσχατος, ἐσχατώτατος, χείριστος, χειριστότατος. 
κύδιστος, κπυδίστατος. 


V. Comparatives are also sometimes formed 
from nouns, adverbs, prepositions, &c.—thus, 


From Nouns. 


ἄλγος, αλγίων, ἀλγίστος. πλεονέκτης, τίστατος. 
βασιλεὺς, εὐτερος, εύτατος. πλήκτης, τίστατος. 
ἑταῖρος, ρότατος. πότης, τίστατος. 
Θεὸς, Θεώτερος. ῥῖγος, γίων, γιστος. 
κέρδος, δίων, δίστος. ὑδριστης, τοτερος. 
κλέπτης, τίστατος. ᾿φὼρ, ρότατος. 


From a Pronoun. 
‘ 


αὐτὸς, ipse, αὐτότατος, ipsissimus. 
From Adverbs. — 

ἄνω, ἀνώτερος, τατος. κάτω, κατώτερος, τατος. « 
ἄφαρ, ἀφάρτερος, τατος. πόῤῥω, ποῤῥώτερος, τατος. 
ἔσω, ἐσώτερος, τατος. πρόσω, προσώτερος, τατος. 
ἔξω, ἐξώτερος, τατος. πρῶϊ, Ab eal ke τατος. 

ἐγγύτερος, τατος. ὀπίσω, ὀπισώτερος, τατος. 
ἐγγὺς, pot ἐστος. ὕψι, ὕψιστος. 


From Prepositions. 


πρὸ, πρότερος, τατος, by syncope προᾶτος, by crasis πρῶτος. 
ὑπὲρ, ὕπερτερος, τάτος, by syncope ὕπᾶτος. : 


- 


From Verbs. 
10, λωΐων, λῴων, λώϊστος, λῷστος. 
; ἕρτατος 
φέρω, φέρτερος, “Ae il 
φέρτιστος. 
From a Participle. 
ἐῤῥωνένος, ἐῤῥωμενέστερος, ἐῤ ῥωμενέστατος. 


De, RE eee ee eee OR ee 


69 


Obs. 1. We have in English an instance of a double super- 
lative, in the phrase Most Highest, in the Psalms, to express 
the superlative excellence of the Supreme Being. Our vulgar 
term lesser, may also be cited as an instance of a double com- 
parative. Such constructions, however, are in violation of the 
idiom of our own, and, in fact, of every, language. 

. Obs. 2. We have some instances of double superlatives in 
the Latin language likewise ; thus, eaxtremissimus, Tertull. 
Apoll. c. 19. postremissimus, in the oration of C: Gracchus, 
quoted by Aulus Gellius, 15. 12: minimissimus, Arnob. 5: so 
also of a kind of double comparatives ; as, intimior, proximior. 
The last of these is used not only by Ulpian and Vegetius, but 
also by Seneca, Epist.108. In Plautus, an instance occurs 
of a superlative formed from a noun, as occulissimus ; this, 
however, is rather to be regarded as a piece of wit on the part 
of the poet. 

Obs. 3. The forms given above of comparisons from adverbs, 
occur more frequently in an adverbial form, as, ἀνωτέρω, ἄνω. 
τάτω; κατωτέρω, κατωτάτω, &c. To these may be added 
ἀγχοῦ, comp. ἀγχοτέρω, and ἀγχιὸν changed to ἄσσον, sup. ἀγχο- 
τάτω, and ἄγχιστα ; μάλα, comp. μᾶλλον, sup. uahove': so also 
from ἀπὸ the preposition, ἀπώτερω, ἀπώτατω. 

Obs. 4. Some, among whom is Fischer, derive the compa- 
ratives and superlatives given above, not from substantives, ad- 
verbs, or prepositions, but from obsolete adjectives. But not 
any trace of such adjectives is to be found, either in the Greek 
writers themselves, or in the old Grammarians ; and, as pre- 
positions, with their case, and adverbs, by prefixing the article, 
are made to answer the significations of adjectives, there is 
no contradiction in supposing that forms of comparison are de- 
rived from these adverbs and prepositions, which are used as 
adjectives. And, as in many verbs, tenses occur, although the 
verbs, from which they must have been more immediately de- 
rived, never existed ; so comparatives and superlatives, of 
which the positive had no existence, were formed after the 
analogy of the substantive. . 


NUMERALS. 


Numbers are either Cardinal, which answer 
to the question, “how many?” or Ordinal, an- 
swering to the question, “which of the num- 


ber ?” 
7* 


‘ 


70 


] -— Cardinal Numbers. 


One. Sing. Two. Dual Two. Plural. 
N. εἴς, μία, ἕν, Nee 

G. ἑνὸς, μιᾶς, ἑνὸς, | N. A. δύο, and dim, | G. δυῶν, 

D. ἕν), μίᾳ, ἑνὶ, | G. D. δυεῖν and δυοῖν. | D. δυσί. 


A. ἕνα, μίαν, ἕν. ρας. 
Three. Plural. Four. Plural. 
N. N. 
N. τρεῖς, tola, N. τέσσαρες, τέσσαρα, 
6. τριῶν, 6. τεσσαρων, 
D. τρισὶ, D. τέσσαρσι, 
A. toe, =. |. Epler, A. τέσσαρας, τέσσαρα. 


Like εἷς are declined, 
. οὐδεὶς, οὐδεμέα, οὐδέν, 
. οὐδενός, οὐδεμῖας, οὐδενός, ἄτα. 


. μηδεὶς, μηδεμία, μηδέν, 
μηδενός, μηδεμῖας, μηδενός, &e. 


QZ az 


1. The Cardinal numbers from πέντϑ, five, to ἑκατόν, a hun- 
dred, are indeclinable. ‘The round numbers frora 200 are de- 
clined regularly like adjectives. The termination —déovor in- 
dicates 100 ; as διακόσιοι, at, α, 200; τριάκποσιοι, 300, &c.. 

2. To express the 9 sthits, the 9 tens, and the 9 hundreds, 
the Greeks used the letters of the alphabet. But as there are 
only 24 letters, they used (τ΄, called Fav, or ἐπίσημον, for 6; 
Y, called κόππα, for 90; and 23, called was nt, (a = covered 
with a reversed C, or old sigma; σὰν being the name applied 
to the sigma in the old Greek, and also in Doric) for 900. 

3. A mark is placed over the letters to denote the numbers. 
Placed under them, it expresses thousands ; thus é is 5, but ε 
is 5000. The figures of the present year are ᾳώλ', 1830. 

4. In the expression of numbers by capitals, the following 
characters are used : viz. 

I, 1, is the mark of Unity. | H, 100,is the initial of Hexardy. 
IT, 5, is the initial of Πέντε. |X, 1000, - - - Xthoo, 
4,10, - - + - 4ἐκα. |M,10,000,- - - Μίύριοι. 

Each of these may be repeated four times: thus, IIJJ, 4, 
444, 30, 4444, 40. MM, 20,000, MMM, 30,000, Mumm, 
40,000. JT, inclosing a numeral letter, multiplies it by 5 ; thus, 


FA, 50, ὥς 


- 71 


ὃ 


. The names of the Greck numbers, with the mode of 
Pe them by the letters of the alphabet, are as fol- 


low :— 
1{[ᾳ | es, 40 ἀ [τεσσαράκοντα, 
2} β΄ | δύο, 50|% | πεντήκοντα, 
317 | tosis, 60 | & | ἑξήκοντα, 
4 0’ τέσσαρες, 70] ὁ | ἑδδομήκοντα, 
5|é |πέντε, 80 | # | ὀγδοήκοντα, 
6] ¢ | 8&, 90 ψ | ἐννενήκοντα, 
71 ζ΄ | ἑπτὰ, 100 ὁ | ἑκατὸν, 
8 ἡ | ὀκτὼ, 200 ὁ | διακόσιοι, 
9| 0’ | ἐνγέα, 800 ἡ τριακόσιοι, 
101{4 δέκα, 400 ὑ | τεσσαρακόσιοι, 
11 | τά | ἕνδεκα, ~ 500 | ᾧ | πεντακόσιοι, 
12 | 06’ δώδεκα, 600| 7% | ἑξακύσιοι, 
18] 7 | τρισκαίδεκα, 700|y | ἑπτακόσιοι, 
14 | 0’ τεσσαρεσκαίδεκα, 800 ὦ | ὀκτοκόσιον, 
15|eé | πεντεκαίδεκα, 900 | 72) ἐννεακόσιοι, 
16 | ἐᾷ ἑκκαίδεκα, 1,000 | ᾳ | χίλιοι, 
17 | et! | értaxaidexa, 2,000 | B | δισχίλιοι, 
18 | εή ὀκτωκαίδεκα, 5,000] ε {πεντακισχίλιου, 
19 & | ἐννεακαίδεκα, 10,000 | 4 | μύριοι, 
201 αὶ | δἴκοσι, 20,000 | x |δισμύριοι, 
21 | x& | εἴκοσι εἷς, 50,000 | » ᾿πεντακισμύριοι, 
30 |.’ τριάκοντα, 100,000 | 9 | δεκακισμύριοι. 


6. In the composition of numbers, either the smaller pre- 
cedes, and the two are joined by ai; or the greater is placed 
first, in which case the conjunction is omitted ; as πέντε κἀὶ 


εἴκοσι, or εἴκοσιν πέντϑ. 


tions ; thus, δἴκοσι καὶ ἑπτὰ, Herod. 8.1. 
Id. 8. 2. 


Yet custom admitted of many devia- 


ἑδδομήκοντα καὶ μέα, 
ἑδδομήκοντα καὶ ies, Id. 8.48. When three num- 


bers are reckoned together, the greatest comes first, and so on 
in succession with the conjunction καὶ; as »έας seats καὶ 
eixoos καὶ ἐπτά, Herod. 8.1. νῆες τριήόσιαι καὶ ἑδδομήκοντα ᾿ 
καὶ ὀκτὼ, Ib. 48. : 

7. Instead of the numbers compounded with 8 and 9, more 
frequent use is made of the circumlocution ἑνός (or μιᾶς) ddonsos, 
δέουσαι, or δέοντα ; δυοῖν δέοντες, δέουσαν or δέοντα; in which 
the latter word is the participle of ded, I want. Thus, νῆες 
μιᾶς δέουσαν εἴχοσι, 19 ships ; ἔτεα δυῷν Stax ve εἴκοσι, 18 years ; 
ἄνδρες Judy δέοντες πεντήκοντα, 48 men. Sometimes the par- 
ciple is referred to the subtractive number, and the genitive 
absolute is formed; as évé¢ δέοντος τριακοστῷ ἔτει, in the 29th 


72 


year. ‘This usage, however, it will be remembered, does not 
take place in Homeric Greek. 

8. The cardinal numbers compounded with ovr, express, 1. 
Together ; as, σύνδυο, two together ; σύντρεις, three together, &c 
2. The signification ‘of Latin distributives ; as, σύντρεις αἰνύμε- 
voc, taking three at a time. Od. t, 429. BRE ee ἦμεν, we were 
two together, by twos. Demosth. in Mid. σύνδυο λόχους ἦγον, 
they led each two companies. Xen. Anab. 6.3. Sometimes 
the prepositions κατὰ, ἄνα, &c. are used. . 


2. Ordinal Numbers. 


1. Of the Ordinal Numbers, all under 20, except second, 
seventh, and eighth, end in tos. From thence upwards all end 
in ootés. ‘Thus, 1st. πρῶτος, (in speaking of two, πρότερος), 2d. 
δεύτερος, 3d. τρίτος, 4th. τέταρτος and τέτρῳ ον 5th. πέμπτος, 
6th. ἕκτος, 7th. ἕδδομος, and ἑδδόματος, 8th. ὄγδοος, and ὀγδόα- 
τος, Oth. ἔννατος, ἔνατος, and εἴνατος, 10th. δέξατος, 11th. évdé- 
κατος, 12th. δωδέκατος, δυωδόκατος and δυοκαιδέκατος, 13th. 
τρισκαιδέκατος, and τρίτος καὶ δέκατος, 14th. τεσσαρακαιδέκατος, 
and τέταρτος καὶ δέκατος, &c. 20th. εἰκοστός, 2151. sis καὶ sixoo- 
τός, μία καὶ εἰκοστή, and εἰκοστός πρῶτος, 30th, τριακοστός, 40th, 
τεσσαρακοστός, 50th. πεντηκοστός, 60th. ἑξηκοστός, 70th. ἐδδο- 
μηκοστός, 80th. ὀγδοηκοστός, 90th. ἐννδνηκοστός, 100th. ἑκατοσ- 
165, 200th. διακοσιοστός, 1000th. χιλιοστός, 10,000th. μυριοστός. 

2. The Greeks used the letters of the alphabet in their na- 
tural order to express a consecutive series, or marks of division. 
Thus the 24 books of the Iliad and Odyssey, are marked by 
the 24 letters, as the stanzas of the 119th Psalm are by the 
Hebrew letters. 

3.,The Greeks, in ates to express half or fractional num- 
bers in money, measures, and weights, used words compound- 
ed of the name of the weight, &c. (μνᾶ, ὀθολός, τάλαντον.) with 
the adjective termination 0», sor, αἷον appended to it, and jue, 
half, and placed before the ordinal number of which the half 
is taken ; as τρίτον ἡμιτάλαντον, 24 talents, i. 6. the first a ta- 
lent, the ‘second a talent, the third a half talent : τέταρτον ἡμι- 
τὰ λονεόν, 34 talents, i. 6. the first a talent, the second a talent, 
ΤΡ third a talent, the fourth a hel balant : τρίτον ἡμίδραχμον, 

3 drachme : τέταρτον ἡμίμναιον, 92 Mine: ἔννατον ἡμέμναιον, 
ai mine. So in Latin; Sestertius, two asses and a half, is 
Adrtened from Semestertius - the first an As, the second an 
As, the third a half As. (tertius semis.) From this must be 
distinguished, however, the phrase when those words are in 
the plural, and joined with the cardinal number: as τρία ἡμι- 


73 


τάλαντα, not 22 talents, but three half talents, i. e. one talent 
and a half : μάν νὰ ἡμιτάλαντα, five half talents, two talents and 
a half: πέντε ἡμιμναῖα, 24 mine: τρία ἡμιμναῖα, 14 mine. 


Remarks on the Numerals. 


1. Cardinal Numbers. 
Eis. 


Cbs. 1. The feminine of εἷς is derived from ἴος, iw, tov; of 
which i or iy still occurs in Homer, (JI. 0’, 437, ¢, 319, i, 
174.) The aie ἰῷ for él occurs, however, only i in Il. τ 
422. Hesiod, Th. 145, has gees for εἷς. The oldest form of 
εἷς, judging from analogy, must have been évs, which bears a 
resemblance to our English once. From the neuter of an old 
form μεῖς, may be derived the particle μὲν, signifying, accord- 
ing to its derivation, in the first place, while the particle δὲ 
may have an analogy with δύο, and may denote in the second 

lace. 

Obs. 2. Instead of οὐδείς, μηδείς, an unattic and incorrect 
form is used by later writers; as οὐθείς, μηθείς, In these, 
however, the feminine resumes the 0. This last circumstance 
proves conclusively that it is wrong to consider these forms 
as coming from οὔτε and uijze compounded with εἷς. Iti is, in 
fact, only the customary change of δ into 0, before an aspirate. 
Some of the old Grammarians supposed οὐδείς to come from 
οὐ and des, with which latter form they.compared the pronoun 
δεῖνα, but this derivation is opposed by the forms οὐδεμία and 
οὐδέτερος. 

Obs. 8. Οὐδείς and μηδείς are often separated and this se- 
paration increases their negative signification ; as οὐδ᾽ ὑφ᾽ érdc¢ 
κρατηθέντες, having been subdued not even by one, i. e. even by 
no one. Εἴς, μία, ἕν, from their very nature, can have no plu- 
ral; but οὐδείς and μῆδοις have οὐδένες and μηδένες, In the 
older language, however, the use of the plural of these forms 
was frequently superseded, especially the dative case, by the 
forms οὐδαμοί, μηδαμοί, (vid. Steph. Thes. and Herod. 9, c. 58. 
οὐδένες ἐν οὐδαμοῖσι.) The singular number, however, of these 
last mentioned forms was not in use, except in the adverbial 
cases οὐδαμοῦ μηδαμῆ, οὐδαμά. 


dio. 


Obs. 1. δύο is the Attic mode of writing. In Homer and 
Herodotus it is indeclinable : δυοῖν is the form for the genitive 
and dative ; δυεῖν is more rare, and is used only in the geni- 


74, ’ 
tive. Instead of dvoty,the Ionians said δυῷν. The dative δυσὶ 
is of rare occurrence. 

Obs. 2. Other old forms were, δυός, of which δύω apparently 
is merely the dual; and δοιός, the same as δισσός. ‘These 
were both used also in the plural. From dos come the sub- 
stantive δοιή, doubt, and the verbs δοιάζω, δοάζω ; ἐνδοιάζω. 

Obs. 3. *Augw accords with dim. In the old Poets it is 
frequently indeclinable ; otherwise, ἀμφοῖν is used in the geni- 
tive and dative throughout the three genders. 


2. Ordinal Numbers. 


Obs. 1. τέτρατος, another form for τέταρτος, occurs J. y’, 
615. Od. 6’, 607: πέμπτος is from the Afolic πέμπε for πέντε: 
é60duatoc is the more ancient form of é6do0uos, and occurs Od. 
x’, 81: ὀγδόατος is also an old form of ὄγδοος, and is found Od. 
γ΄, 306. Hesiod. ἔργ. 790 : ἔνατος is the most ancient form, and 
occurs J]. 6’, 313. Soph. El. 707: hence come εἴνατος, Il. 6’; 
295. and the common 2 vatog : δυωκαιδέκατος is the older form. 

Hes. toy. 774. 

~ Obs. 2. Numerals in αἷος are derived from the ordinal 
numbers, and answer to the question “on what day?” In 
other languages they can only be expressed. by several words. 
Thus, δευτεραῖος, on the second day : τριταῖος, on the third day: 
δἰκοσταῖος, on the twentieth day, &c. ‘There is, however, ΠΟ. 
such numeral from πρῶτος, but instead of it αυθῆμαρ may be 
used, on the first day. From πρότερος comes προτεραῖος, which, 
however, is not referred to the person, but joined with ἡμέρα, 
as τῇ προτεραίᾳ ἡμέρᾳ, on the day previous ; ty ὑστεραίᾳ ἡμέρᾳ, 
on the day after. 

Obs. 3. A second class of derivatives are the numeral 
nouns, with an abstract signification ; as, ἡ μονάς, the unity ; 
δυάς, the number two; τριάς, the number three, in ecclesiastical 
writers, the Holy Trinity; so also, τετράς, πεντάς (likewise 
πεμτίάς and πεμπτάς), ἑξάς, ἑδδομάς, ὀγδοάς, ἐννεάς, δεκάς, Ev- 
δεκάς, &c. The two numbers εἴκοσι ἃπα τριάκοντα, reject be- 
fore this termination their peculiar ending as far as x, thus ; 
εἰκάς, τριακάς. All the remaining numbers adhere to the 
analogy, (and the compound ones seldom appear); as, τεσσαρα- 
κοντάς͵ πεντηκοντάς, ἑκατοντάς, χιλιάς, μυριάς, ὅτο. 

Obs. 4. When other words are compounded with numerals, 
then for unity we have povo-, for 2. δι--» for 3 τρι--, for 4 τετρα--: 
as, μονόκερωος, δίκερως, τρίμηνον, τρίοδος, τετράγωνος. ΑἸ] the 
remaining numbers terminate generally in ἃ or 0, as πεντάμε- 
τρος, δἰκοσάκωπος, χιλιοτάλαντα, 


Or eR Cee eee ee eae oe 


Obs. 5. The numeral adverbs are as follows ; ἄπαξ, once ; 
δίς, twice ; τρίς, thrice ; (all the remaining end in κις) τδτράκις, 
four times ; πεντάκις ; ὀκτάκις ; ἐννδάκις or ἐνγγνάκις ; εἰκοσάκις ; 
ἐκατοντάκις:; χιλιάκις, S&c. 

Obs. 6. The multiplicative adjectives, are ; ἁπλοῦς, simple, 
διπλοῦς, double ; τριπλοῦς, triple; τετραπλοῦς, four-fold ; msvta- 
πλοῦς, five-fold, Sc. 


PRONOUNS. ARTI SLE 


Pronouns are divided into, 


1. Personal. 3. Relative. 
ἐγώ, 1. 8c, ἣ, 8, who ; 
ov, thou. 
ob, of kim. 4. Demonstrative. © 
οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο, thi 
2. Possessive. ὅδε, ἦδε, τόδε, ᾿ set 
ἐμὸς, ἡ, Ov, mine. éxeivoc,y, οΟ, that. 
σὸς, σὴ, σὸν, thine. αὐτὸς, ἡ, ὁ, he, she, τὲ 


ὅς, or δὸς, ἡ, Ov, his. 
5. Reciprocal. 
γωΐτερος, a, ov, our, of us two. ἐμαυτοῦ, of myself. 
σφωΐτερος, α, ov, your, of you | σεαυτοῦ, of thyself. 
two. ἑαυτοῦ, of himself. 
ἀλλήλων, of one another. 
ἡμέτερος, a, OY, our. 3 


ὑμέτερος, a, OY, your. 6. Indefinites. 
σφὸς, ὴ, ὃν, shock. τὶς, τὶ, any. 
σφέτερος, a, OP, δεῖνα, some one. 


Singular Dual Plural. 
N. ἐγὼ, N. ἡμεῖς, 
G. ἐμοῦ, or μοῦ, N. A. νῶϊ, γνῷ, G. ἡμῶν, 
D. ἐμοὶ, or μοὶ, G. Ὁ. νῶϊν, νῷν D. ἡμῖν, 
A. ἐμὲ, or μέ. Α. ἡμᾶς 

Σὺ, thou. 

Singular. Dual. Plural. 
Ν. σὺ, | Ν. ὑμεῖς, 
6. σοῦ, N. A. σφῶϊ, σφῷ, | G. ὑμῶν, 
Ὦ. σοὶ, |G. D. σφῶϊν, opor.} Ὁ. ὑμῖν, 
Α. σέ. Α. ὑμᾶς, 


Ode is compounded of the Article, and the ἘΈΒΙΚΙΝ ds. 


is declined like the Article throughout. 
«Αὐτὸς and ἐκεῖνος, are declined like ὃς, 4, ὃ. 


Pe a wee. ae 


76 7 6 748 
Οὗ, of him. 
Singular. Dual. «Plural. N. 
N. —, N. σφεῖς, σφέα, 
6. οὗ, Ν. Α. σφωέ, 6. σφῶν, 
Ὦ. οἵ, G. D. σφωΐν, D. σφίσι, 
A. ὃ. A. σφᾶς, σφέα 
i in I 
2.----ὃς, 1), 0, who, which, what. 
Singular, Dual. Plural 
N. ὃς, ἣ, ὃ, Ν. οἵ, αἵ, ἃ, 
G. οὗ, ἧς, οὗ, N.A.6, ἅ,. ὃ, |G. ὧν, by, by, 
D.4, 4, 4, 6. Ὁ. of, «fv, οἷν. | Ὁ. οἷς, αἷς, οἷς, 
A. ὃν, ἣν, 8. | 3 Rob. Bs. ἃ. 
Οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο, is declined and prefixes σ like the article : 
thus, 
Singular. 
M. ἡ ἢ. Ν. 
Ν. οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο, 
6. τούτου, ταύτης, τούτου, 
D. τούτῳ, ταύτη, τούτῳ, 
A. τοῦτον, ταύτην, τοῦτο. 
; Dual. 
N. A. τούτω, ταύτα, τούτω, 
6. Ὁ. τούτοιν, ταύταιν, τούτοιν». 
Plural. 
N. οὗτοι, αὗται, ταῦτα, 
6. τούτων, τούτων, τούτων, 
D. τούτοις, ταύταις, τούτοις, 
Α. τούτους, ταύτας, ταῦτα. 


It 


_ 3. From the personal pronouns and αὐτος, are 
compounded, ἐμαυτοῦ, σεαυτοῦ, ἑαυτοῦ. 


Singular. 


3 
6. ἑαυτοῦ, ἑ ἑαυτῆς, ἑαυτοῦ, 
ἑαυτῷ, 
δαυτόν, ἑαυτήν, ἑαυτό. 


αυτῷ, ἑαυτῇ, 


.".. 


Plural. 


N 
G. 
D. 


δ 
e 
δ 


2 2 Yd 
ἑαυτῶν, ἑαυτῶν, ἑαυτῶν, 
αὑτοῖς, ἑαυταῖς, ἑαυτοῖς, 
Α. ἑαυτούς, ἑαυτάς, ἑαυτά. 


ee — ee 


77 


In like manner are declined ἐμαυτοῦ and σεαυτοῦ, but in the 
Singular only : they want the Dual and Plural. 


‘Aldor. 
Dual. Plural. 
N.—-, 
N.-A. ἀλλήλω, ἀλλήλα, 6. ἀλλήλων, 
G. Ὦ. ἀλλήλοιν, ἀλλήλαεν. Ὁ. ἀλλήλοις, ἀλλήλαις, 


A. ἀλλήλους, ἀλλήλας, ἀλληλα. 


4.—Tic, any. 


Singular. Dual. Plural. - 
N. A 
N. tis, τὶ, Ν. τινὲς, τινὰ, 
G. τινὸς, Ν. ΔΑ. τινὲ, 6. τινῶν, 
D. τινὶ, 6. Ὁ. τινοῖν. D. τισὶ, 
A. τινὰ, εἰ; Α. τινὰς, τινά, 


Asiva, some one. 


Singular. Plural. 
N. 6, ἥ, τὸ, δεῖνα, [Ν. οὗ, δεῖνες, 
G. τοῦ, τῆς, τοῦ, δεῖνος, | G. τῶν, δείνων, 
D. τῷ, τῇ, τῷ, δεῖνι, D. ᾽ 3 
A. τὸν, τῆν, τὸ, δεῖνα. |! A,——, —. 


It is sometimes also indeclinable ; as, τὸν δεῖνα, τὸν τοῦ 
δεῖνα. Aristoph. Thesm. 622. | 


Remarks on the Pronouns. 


1. Personal Pronouns. 


Obs. 1. The Dialects of the Personal Pronouns, at large, 
are given in the Remarks on the Dialects, towards the end of 
the volume. | 

Obs. 2. In the genitive singular, ἐμοῦ, σοῦ, οὗ, are Attic 
contractions from the Ionic forms ἐμέο, σέο, ἕο. When the 
genitive, dative, and accusative singular of ἐγὼ are emphatic, 
they are written ἐμοῦ, ἐμοὶ, ἐμὲ; otherwise μοῦ, μοὶ, μέ, The 
Dual forms, νῷ, γῷν ; σφῷ, σφῷν ; are Attic. In the plural, 
ἡμεῖς, ὑμεῖς, and σφεῖς, are contractions from ἡμέες, dudes, 
σφέες ; and so of the other cases. In the Dative, however, a 
different change occurs ; ἡμῖν and ὑμῖν are contracted from 
ἡμέσι, ὑμέσι, and have the » ἐφελκυστικόν added 

8 


78 

Obs. 3. The pronoun od is very seldom used in the Attic 
dialect ; since, in order to express a reflexive meaning, ἑαυτοῦ 
takes its place. Among the lonic and Epic writers, however, 
it is more frequently employed, not only in a reflexive sense, 
but also, and more generally, for the oblique cases of ἀντός. 

Obs. 4. According to Theodosius Alexandrinus, (ed. Goet- 
ling.) the ancient_pronoun of the third person was ?, whence 
the Latin is, ejus. | 

. 
2. Possessive Pronouns. 


Obs. ἑός, ἡ, ὄν, occurs only in the singular in the Tonic and 
Doric writers, and in the poets; ὅς is an abbreviated: form 
from 6¢: σφωΐτερσς occurs only in the Jonic Poets, as also 
νωΐτερος : ἡμέτερος was used sometimes for ἐμός, as ἡμεῖς for 
ἐγώ : σφέτερος is sometimes used by the Attic poets for the 
pronoun possessive of the third person singular. 


3. Demonstrative Pronouns. 


Obs. 1. In ὅδε, the enclitic δὲ is annexed only to give great- 
er strength. Instead of this δὲ, the Attics also annex the syl- 
lable δί; as ὁδί, ἡδί, 100i; which is analogous to the Latin 
hicce. 

Obs. 2. In the pronoun οὗτος, the Ionians frequently msert 
€ before the termination of the case, as τουτέῳ, τουτέων, τουτέους. 
The Attics annex an ὁ to this pronoun in all cases and gen- 
ders, to give a stronger emphasis ; as οὗτοσέ, αὑτηΐ, In the 
neuter, this ὁ took the place of o and @; as τουτί, ταυτί. For 
the same reason the Latins annexed met, te, ple, ce; as ego- 
met, tute, meapte, hicce. Hence οὑτοσί is only used in an ab- 
solute designation, οὗτος with reference also to a pronoun re- 
lative which follows it. 

Obs. 3. Instead of + the syllables γί and 0/ are annexed to 
the cases which end in a short vowel, for the same purpose ; 
as touroys, ταυταγί, tovrodl, ‘This appears only to have been 
used in familiar discourse, as it occurs in the comic writers 
alone. “Odlalso does not occur in the tragedians. From this 
we must distinguish the « which the Attics and Ionians fre- 
quently annex to the dative plural, as τούτοισι, ταύταισι. 

Obs. 4. Some adjectives compounded with οὗτος follow its 
declension, but reject the τ throughout ; as τοσοῦτος, τοσαύτη, 
τοσοῦτο, from τόσος : τοιοῦτος, τοιαύτη, τοιοῦτο, from τοῖος : THAL- 
κοῦτος, τηλικαύτη, τηλικοῦτο, from τηλέκος. ‘The ἐ paragogicum 
is often annexed to these also, as τοιουτονί, τοιουτοιΐ, τοιαυταιΐ, 
τοιαυταΐ. 


ΝΒ ee ee ee ee a ΡΟ 


79 


Obs. 5. The Attics sometimes use τοῦτον for τοῦτο: as τοῦ- 
tov πέλαγος, Pausan. 8. 54. (See Obs. 9. below.) So also, 
τοσοῦτον for τοσοῦτο, and τοιοῦτον for τοιοῦτο. Xen. Cyrop. 1. 1. 
Thucyd. 2. 50. In like manner, τὸ ἄλλον for τὸ ἄλλο, Arrian. 
Exp. Alex. 1. 19. 

Obs. 6. ἐκεῖνος has also the ὁ paragogicum; as, ἐκδιγοσί, 
éxevvout, ἐκεινονέ, For ἐκεῖνος, the Ionians, and likewise the 
Attic tragic writers, used κεῖνος. The AXolians said χῆνος. 
The Dorians τῆνος. 

Obs. 7. «Αὐτός was used for the third person ; and yet it has 
the proper signification of he, she, it, only in the oblique cases; 
and even in these only when they stand after some other 
word or words in the clause. In the nominative, and in the 
oblique cases when these last begin a clause, it signifies, not 
he or him; but he himself, himself, &c.; thus, ἔδωκεν αὐτοῖς, he 
gave to them; οὐχ ἕωρακας αὐτὸν, thou hast not seen him ; but 
αὐτὸς ἔφη, he himself said it: nageyivartn αὐτοὶ, they ttemsclies 
were present: αὐτὸν ἕωρακα, I have seen the person himself: αὐ- 
τοῖς ἔδῳκε, he gave to the persons themselves, ὅσο. When the 
article immediately precedes, the phrase means the same ; as, 
ὁ αὐτὸς ἀνήρ, the same man: τὸ αὐτό or τἀυτὸ, the same thing. 

Obs. 8. αὑτοῦ, αὑτῷ, αὑτόν, &c. with the rough breathing on 
the initial syllable, are not from αὐτός immediately, but are 
contracted for ἑαυτοῦ, ἑαυτῷ, ἑαυτόν, &e. 

Obs. 9. ‘The Attics frequently use ταὐτὸν, for τὸ αὐτό, Aris- 
toph. 253. Xen. Ages. 3. 2. id. Anab. 6. 3. ἄτα. 


4. Reciprocal Pronouns. 


Obs. 1. These pronouns are not compounded of ἐμέ, σέ, ἕ, 
and αὐτός, but of ἐμέο, σέο, ἕο, old genitive forms for ἐμοῦ, σοῦ, 
οὗ. These pronouns never occur in Homer as one vowel, but 
separate, as ἐμὲ αὐτόν, σὲ αὐτόν, ὃ αὐτόν, &c. In Herodotus 
they are separated and transposed; as, αὐτοῦ ἐμεῦ, αὐτῷ μοι, 
&c. The Attics separate or transpose, when they wish to 
convey a reflexive meaning : for it is observable, that in these 
compound pronouns, unless thus arranged, αὐτός loses its pe- 
culiar force ; thus, σαυτόν means thee merely, but αὐτόν σε, 
thee thyself. 

Obs. ὦ. Properly, according to their composition, only the 
genitive of these pronouns should have been in use. It is 
owing to arbitrary usage, that ἐμέο, σέο, and ὅο, are compound- 
ed with other cases of αὐτός besides the genitive. 

Obs. 3. Whenever there is need of a plural for ἐμαυτοῦ, and 
σεαυτοῦ, the parts of the compound are declined separately ; 
as ἡμεῖς αὐτοί, ὑμεῖς αὐτοί, ἡμῶν αὐτῶν, ὑμῶν αὐτῶν, &e. 


80 
5. Indefinite Pronouns. 


Obs. 1. The Indefinite τις, as being an enclitic, is com- 
monly used without an accented mark; the interrogative τίς 
(who ?) has the accent always on the « in the dissyllable cases, 
(τίνες, τίσι,) and is thereby distinguished, as also in the nomi 
native singular, by the invariable acute accent, from the inde 
finite τις. 

Obs. 2. The Tiniane said for τινός, τινί, &e. τὸν, and con 
tracted, τεῦ. Dat. τέῳ. Gen. pl. τέων, Dat. πέσιξ; τέοισι. The 
Attics contracted τινός into tov, τινί into τῳ, in all the genders, 
and wrote them without an accent. In the plural they used 
only τινῶν, τισί. There existed also different forms of the 
pronouns ts and τεὸς, ‘The Grammarians say, that from τινός 
a new nominative tlos, tiov, tio, was formed ; and from this, 
according to them, came τοῦ, by the Ionians resolved into τέο 
and τέῳ. 


6. Remarks on the combination of ὅς and τις. 


Obs. 1. The indefinite τὸς is sometimes subjoined to the 
relative ὅς, and a new form arises, with the signification, who- 
soever, which has each of its constituent parts separately de- 
clined ; as dots, ἥτις, ὅτε, (or 6 τι, to distinguish it from ὅτι, 
that,) Gen. ὀὕτινος, ἧστινος, οὗτινος ; Dat. ᾧτινι, ἥτινι, ᾧτινι, ἄςς, 

Obs. 2. Homer says 6 τις, for ὅστις, and retains, with the 
rest of the Lonic writers, the 6 unchanged in all the cases, as 
ὅτευ, Od. ρ΄, 424. and ὅττεο, ὅττευ, Od. &, 124. 7’, 377. ο΄, 121. 
for οὗτινος, ἤστενος. So also in the dative ὅ ὅτεῳ, 1]. 6,664. Ac- 
cus. ὅτεινα, Od. θ᾽, 204. Nom. Pl. Neut. drive, Il. 7’, 450. 
Gen. ὅτεων, Od. κ', 39, &c. The Attics retained this in the 
genitive and dative singular; as ὅτον, dro, for οὗτινος, ᾧτινι. 
The form ὅτων, however, also occurs, Xen. Anab. 7. 6. and 
likewisé ὅτοισε in Sophocles.and Aristophanes. 

Obs. 3. Instead of the neuter plural ἅτενα, Homer and He- 
rodotus have ἅσσα, from the Doric σὰ for τινά, The Attics 
instead of this say ἅττα. This last, however, must not be 
confounded with ἄττα, which the Attics used in certain com- 
binations, particularly with adjectives, for the neuter plural 

τινὰ as ἄλλ᾽ ἄττα, ἕτερ᾽ ἄττα, τοιαῦτ᾽ ἄττα, and for which the 
form ἄσσα occurs, Od. 1’, 218. 


δῚ1 


VERB. 
Verss are of two kinds; 1. in 2, 2. in MI. 


Verbs in 2 are either such as have a consonant before ὦ, 
oer such as have a vowel, «, 8, 0, before it. The former are 
called barytone verbs ; because they have the acute accent 
on the penultima, and the last syllable necessarily has the 
grave accent, (βαρὺν τόνον.) not expressed in writing: the lat- 
ter are called pure, or contracted, verbs, because ὦ is con- 
tracted by the Attics into one vowel with the preceding: they 
are also styled circumflex verbs, because, after contraction, the 
ὦ receives a circumflex ; as φιλέω, φιλῶ. These, however, are 
not at all different from the barytons, since it is merely re- 
quired to contract in the present and imperfect. 


Verbs have three Voices; the Active, Passive, 
and Middle: Five Moods; Indicative, Imperative, 
Optative, Subjunctive, and Infinitive: 

Nine Tenses; Present, Imperfect, Perfect, Plu- 
perfect, First and Second Future, First and Second 
Aorist, and, in the Passive, Paulo-post-futurum : 

Three Numbers ; Singular, Dual, and Plural. 


Obs. The older Grammarians, and the earliest modern ones, 
reckoned fourteen conjugations ; seven of barytone verbs, ac- 
cording to the characteristic consonant of the present tense, 
and the formation of the future ; three of verbs cxrcumflex ; and 
four of verbs in w#. 1. Barytone verbs. Ist. in β, 7, φ, at, 
Future w. 2d.in γ, #, χ, xt, Future ξ. 3d. in ὃ, 0, 7, Future 
ing. 4th. in ¢, σσ, ττ, Future oro. 5th. ind, μ, v, 0, Fu- 
ture ὦ, 6th. w pure, as αὔω, Future o. 7th. in § and y, Fu- 
ture jow. II. Verbs circumflex. Ast. ἐω. 2d.in dw. 3d. in 
ὀω. III. Verbsin ws. Ist. in que, ys, Infin. évor. 2d. in que, 
7s, Infin. άναι. 3d. in wus, Infin. dvoe. 4th. in vue, Infin. ύναι. 
‘The modern and more simple division takes its origin from 
Vervey and Weller. 


Observations on the Voices of the Greek Verb. 


Tue Active and Passive Voices having nothing very pecu- 
liar in their signification, as compared with those of the Latin 
language, we shall confine ourselves, therefore, to a considera- 
tion of the Middle Voice. | 

8* 


82 


The Middle Voice, in Greek, is so called, because it has a 
middle signification between the Active and Passive Voices, 
implying neither action nor passion simply, but an union, in 
some degree, of both. Middle Verbs may be divided into Five 
Classes, as follows: 

1. In Middle Verbs of the First Class, the action of the 
- Verb is reflected zmmediately back upon the agent; and hence 

Verbs of this Class are exactly equivalent to the Active Voice 
joined with the Aceusative of the reflexive Pronoun; as λούω, 
1 wash another ; λούομαι, I wash myself; the same as λούω 
ἐμαυτόν. 

2. In Middle Verbs of the Second Class, the agent is the 
remote object of the action of the Verb, with respect to whom 
it takes place ; so that Middle Verbs of this Class are equiva- 
lent to the Active Voice with the Dative of the reflexive Pro- 
noun (ἐμαυτῷ, σεαυτῷ, ἑαυτῷ); as αἱρεῖν, to take up any thing 
for another, in order to transfer it to another ; αἱρεῖσθαι, to take 
up in order to keep it one’s self, to transfer to one’s self. Hence 
Verbs of this Class carry with them the idea of a thing’s being 
done for one’s self. 

3. Middle Verbs of the Third Class express an action which 
took place at the command of the agent, or with regard to it; 
which is expressed in English by to cause. In other words, 
this Class may be said to signify, to cause any thing to be done ; 
as γράφω, I write; γράφομαι, 1 cause to be written, I cause the 
name, as of an accused person, to be taken down in writing by the 
magistrate before whom the process is carried, or, simply, 1} accuse. 

4. The Fourth Class of Middle Verbs includes those which 
denote a reciprocal or mutual action ; as σπένδεσθαι, to make 
libations along with another, to make mutual libations, i. e. to 
make a league ; διαλύεσθι, to dissolve along with another, to dis- 
solve by mutual agreement. ‘To this class belong Verbs signi- 
fying ‘“ to contract,” ‘‘ quarrel,” “ contend,” &c. 

5. The Fifth Class comprehends Middle Verbs of the First 
Class, when followed by an Accusative, or some other Case ; 
in other words, it embraces all those Middle Verbs which de- 
note an action reflected back on the agent himself, and which 
are at the same time followed by an Accusative, or other 
Case, which that action farther regards ; as, ἀγναμγάσθαι τι, to 

_recall any thing to one’s own recollection. 

6. As regards the Tenses of the Middle Voice, the student 
will take notice,— 

(a) That the Future Middle has usually an Active, some- 
times a Passive sense, while the Future Passive has seldom, 
if ever, the signification of the Middle. 


83 


(b) In many Verbs the Aorist Passive has a Middle signi- 
fication. In such Verbs, either the Aorist Middle is obsolete 
or rare, or else it has one of the meanings of the Verb, and 
generally the original one, appropriated to itself, and the Pas- 
sive Aorist another: thus, the Aorist Passive σταλῆναι, is at- 
tached with the medial signification to στέλλεσθαι, to journey ; 
whereas στείλασθαι, the proper Aorist middle, belongs only to 
στέλλεσθαι, to clothe one’s self, or send for. 

(c) The Perfect Middle, in some Verbs, supplies the place 
of the Perfect Active, this latter ‘Tense being obsolete on ac- 
count of euphony ; as ἔκτονα, ἀκήκοα, ἔσπορα, λέλοιπα, οἶδα, 
πέπονθα, τέτοκα, &c. In many Verbs, however, the Perfect 
Middle is found with an Intransitive meaning, clearly based 
upon, and deducible from, its Middle meaning. To under- 
stand the examples which follow, the student will bear in 
mind the peculiar force of the Perfect Tense of the Verb in 
all the Voices, viz. its reference to a continued action. ‘Thus: 


"γνυμι, I break. Perf. Middle, ἔαγα, J have caused myself to 
be broken, (by not offering, for example, sufficient 
resistance,) and I continue broken, i. 6. I am broken. 


Avolyw, I open. Perf. M. ἀνέφγα, I have caused myself to be 
upened, (speaking, for example, of -a door which 
does not offer sufficient resistance in remaining 
shut,) and I continue open, i. e. I stand open. 


᾿Εγείρω, I awaken. Perf. M. ἐγρήγορα, I have awakened my- 
self, and continue awake, i. 6. I am awake. 


"Elnw; I give hopes. Perf. M. ἔολπα, I have given myself 
hopes, and I continue in hopes, 1. 6. I hope. 


"Olhuut, I destroy. Perf. M. ὄλωλα, I have destroyed or run- 
ed myself, and I continue ruined, i. e. I am undone. 


Πήγνυμι, I fix. Perf. M. πέπηγὰ, I have fixed myself, and 
continue fixed,i.e. 1 am fixed. 


Mévo, I remain. Perf. M. μέμονα, I have caused myself to 
remain, and I continue remaining, i. e. I persevere. 
The Perfect Active μεμένηκα, merely signifies, I 
have remained. 


Πρασσω, Ido. Perf. M. πέπραγα, I have caused myself to do, 
1 have acted in such a way as to do; hence πέπραγα 
καλῶς, I have caused myself to do well, I have acted 
tn such a way as to do well, and I continue to do well, 
i. e. [do well, I am fortunate, or prosperous. 


The list might be extended farther, but a sufficient number 
of examples have been cited to show that the Perfect Middle 
can only obtain its Intransitive meaning through its Middle 
one. It seems therefore incorrect to term it, as some Gram- 
marians have done, the Second Perfect Active. 

(d) The Perfect and Pluperfect Passive are often used in 
a Middle sense. This appears in general to be the case, 
when the corresponding Middle Tenses are either obsolete 
or rare. 7 


The Doctrine of the Moods and Tenses will — 
be given at the end of the Syntax. : 


The Verb’ Εἰμὶ, to be. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 


Sing. εἰμί, εἷς or εἶ, ἐστί, 
I am, thou art, he is. 
Dual. ἐστόν, ἐστόν, 
you two are, they two are. 
Plur. ἐσμέν ἐστέ εἰσί, 
we are, ye are, they are. 


Imperfect, ἦν, I was. 


Ss. ἦν, ἧς, ἦ or ἦν, 
D. ἦτον, ἤτην, 
P. ἦμεν, ἦτὲ ἦσαν». 
Future, ἔσομαι, 4 will be. 
S. ἔσομαι, gon, ἔσδται, 
D ἐσόμεθον, ἔσεσθον, ἔσεσθον, 
P. ἐσόμεθα, ἔσεσθε, ἔσονται. 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present and Imperfect, tod, be thou. 


Ss. ἴσθι or ἔσο, ἔστω. 
D. ἔστον, ἔστων, 
P ἔστε, ἔστωσαν. 


85 


OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present and Imperfect, εἴην, 1 might be. 


Ὁ ὦ 


S. εἴην, eins, ein, 
D. εἴητον, δἐήτην, 
P. δἴημεν, εἴητε, δῖησαν or δἷδν. 
Future, ἐσοίμην, I would be. 
. ἐσοΐμην, ἔσοιο, ᾿ς ἔσοιτο 
. ἐσοέμεθον, ἔσοισθον, ἐσοίσθην, 
ἐσοίμεθα, ἔσοισθε, ἔσοιντο. 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present and Imperfect, ὦ, I may be. 
S. ὦ, ἧς, ἦ, 
D. ἦτον, ἦτον, 
P ὦμεν, ἦτε, ὦσι 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present and Imperfect. 
sivas, to be. 


Future. 


ἔσεσθαι, to be about to be. 


PARTICIPLES., | 


Present. 
N. ὧν, οὖσα, ὃν, being. 
G. ὄντος, οὔσης, ὄντος. 
Future. 


N. ἐσόμενος, ἐσομένη, ἐσόμενον, about to be, 
G. ἐσομένου, ἐσομένης, ἐσομένου. 


Remarks on Εἰμὶ. 


Obs. 1. The root of εἰμὶ is the old verb é@w; hence εἷς and 
et in the second person, of which, however, εἶ is more used 
than the other. It is remarkable that the form δἰμὲ is actually 


Bh. ὩΣ 


86 


an AXolic one, received into the common dialect. From éw 
the form ἠμὶ properly arose. The Beotians, however, a 
branch of the A®olians, used εἰ for ἡ, and hence said εἰμὶ for 
qui, which was copied into the Attic and common dialects. 

Οὐ. 2. The original form of the imperfect, appears to have 
been, ἔα, gas, ἔξ, &c. Il. δ΄, 321. ἐ, 887. Herod. 1. 187, ἄτα. 
Instead of this, Homer has also ἦα, 7]. ἐ, 808, &c. which 
was probably a purer lonic form than the first. From this 
old imperfect, arose by contraction the Attic 7%, ἧς, 7, &c.: 
thus, contracted 7; ἔας, contr. ἧς ; % contr. 7; and, with 
the » ἐφελκυστικόν, ἦν ; which form is more common than 7. 

Obs. 3. Instead of ἧς, the Attics more commonly said ἦσ- 
θα; instead of ἦτον, ἤτην, they used more frequently ἦστον, 
Horny; and in the plural ἦστε for ἦτε. In the third person 
plural, ἦν occurs for ἦσαν, in an inscription in schines, in 
Ctes. p. 573, and also in Hesiod. Th. 321. Herod. 5. 12; but 
particularly in the Doric, as in Epicharmus, ap. Athen. 2. p. 
250, ὅτε. 

Obs. 4. ἔσομαι, the future of εἰμὶ, is borrowed from the mid- 
dle. In the second person singular, it has also Zoe: for ἔσῃ, 
and in the third person, ἔσταν by contraction for ἔσεται ; this 
form ἔσταν is the one most commonly used. 

Obs. 5. A pluperfect form, as it is called, is generally added 
in grammars ; as, ἤμην, ἦσο, ἦτο; ἤμεθον, ἦσθον, ἤσθην ; ἤμε- 
θα, ἦσθε, ἦντο. ‘This, however, is properly an imperfect mid- 
dle, and does not make its appearance in the best grammars: 
it is disapproved of by the Grammarians. 

Obs. 6. Instead of ἔσθε in the imperative, there was also an 
old form ἔσο, or ἔσσο, Od. &, 303. γ΄, 200, from which the other 
persons are derived almost regularly. The student will be 
careful not to confound this ἔσθιε with a form similar to it in 
every respect as regards appearance, viz. io, the imperative 
of ἔσημι, contracted from ἔσαθι, and borrowed by εἴδεω, I know. 
—The form ἔστων for ἔστωσαν, occurs in Xenophon, Cyrop. 
4. 6. and 8. 6. 

Obs. 7. ‘The form εἶεν is given in all grammars along with 
εἴησαν. It is, in fact, the most frequently used of the two. It 
occurs also adverbially in the sense of the Latin esto ! well, be 
it so! and appears to have been retained in the language of 
common life from the old ee for si7, with v ἐφελκυστικόν.. for 
_ the sense requires the singular, not the plural. It is met with 
chiefly in Plato and Aristophanes. 


87 


Verbs in Q. 


There are four Conjugations of Verbs in a, 
distinguished by the termination of the First 
Future. 

The First Conjugation in ya, as τύπτω, ύψω. 

The Second in fa, as λέγω, λέξω. 

The Third in oa, as tiw, tion. 

The Fourth in a liquid before @, as ψάλλω, 


Waka. 


General Observations. 


Obs.1. When the First Person Plural ends in ue, the Dual 
has no first person. The tenses to which this remark applies 
are, all those of the Active voice, together with the Aorists of 
the Passive. 

Obs. 2. In the Present, Perfect, and Future of the Indica- 
tive, and all the Subjunctive, the third person plural ends in 
ov or tat; and the second and third persons Dual are the same. 

Obs. 3. The Imperfect, Pluperfect, and the two Aorists of 
the Indicative, together with all the Optative, form the Dual 
in ov, yy. Elmsley, however, on Aristoph. Acharn. 773. says, 
that the 2d and 3d persons Dual were always alike. 


ACTIVE VOICE. 
1, The Principal Parts. 


Pres, tumtw. Ast. Fut. ciyo. Perf. τέτυφα. 
2d. Aorist, ἔσυπον. 


2. The Moods and Tenses. 
Indic. Imper. Opt. Subj. Infin. Part. 


Present. τύπτω , 
TUNT-& Olt -Ο ~EULV -QY 


Imperf. ἔτυπτον 
Ist. Fut. [τύψ-ω -O1e -εὺν | «ὧν 
Ist. Aor. |ἔτυψα τύψ-ον |-ouur| -ὦ |-o0» | -a¢ 


Perfect. τέτυφα 
Pluperf. =| ἐτετύφειν ᾿ 
2d. Aor. | &rumov tém-8 |-o1uv| -w | -εῖν | -ὧν 
2d. Fut. ἰ|τυπ-ῶ . -οἵἷμν «εἶν | -ὥν, 


τέτυφ-δ]) -οιμι Ὶ -ὦ | -ἐναν) -ὡς 


88 


3. Numbers and Persons. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present, 1 strike. 


S. τύπτω, _ τύπτεις, τύπτει, 
D. τύπτεδτον, τύπτετον, 
P. τύπτομεν, © tintets, τύπτουσι. 
Imperfect, I was striking. 
S. ἔτυπτον, ἔτυπτες, ἔτυπτε, 
D. ἐτυπτδτον, ἐτυπτέτην, 
P. ἐτύπτομεν, éruntete, ἔτυπτον. 
First Future, J shall strike. 
S. τύψω, τυψεῖις, τυψϑι, 
D. é TUWETOY, TUWETOY, 
P. τύψομεν, τυψδτε, τυψουσι. 


S. ἔτυψα, ἔτυψας, ἔτυψε, 

D. ἐτυψατον, ἐτυψάτην, 

P. ἐτύψαμεν, ἐτυψατε, ἔτυψαν. 

Perfect, I have struck 

S. τέτυφα, τέτυφας, τέτυφε, 

Εν" TETUGATOY, TETUPATOY, 

P. τετύφαμεν, TETUPATE, τετυφασι. 
Pluperfect, I had struck. 

S. ἐτετύφειν éretugecs, - éretuger, 

D. ἐτετυφειτον, ἐτετυφείτην, 

P. ἐτετύφειμεν, δτετυφειτε, ἐτετυφεισαν. 
Second Aorist, I struck. 

S. ἔτυπον, ἔτυπες, ἔτυπε, 

D. " ἐτυπετον, ἐτυπέτην, 

P. ἐτύπομεν, érumete, ἔτυπον. 

Second Future, J shall strike. 

S. τυπῶ, τυπεῖς, τυπεῖ, 

D τυπεῖτον, τυπεῖτον, 

P. τυποῦμεν, τυπεῖτδ, τυπρῦσι. 


First Aorist, 7 struck, 


89 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present, strike. 


S. tints, τυπτέτω, 

D. τύπτετον, τυπτέτων, 

Ῥ. τύπτετε, τυπτέτωσαν. 
First Aorist, strike. 

S. τύψον, τυψάτω, 

D. τύψατον, τυψάτων, 

P. τύψατε, Widen yse a . 

VERVE ik Ἐς 

Perfect, have struck.” or y 

S. τότυφε, TETUGETGI, 

D. τετύφετον, TETV τ Lis eZ 

P. tetépets, « said, eee 1 ἐπ" Γ᾿ 


Second Aorist, strike. 


S. tine, τυπέτω, 
Ὦ. τύπετον, τυπέτων, 
P. τύπετϑ, τυπέτωσαν. ν 


OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present, ἢ might be striking. 


S. τύπτοιμι, τυπτοις, τυπτοι, 

D. ; τυπτοιτον, τυπτοίτην, 

P. τύπτοιμεν,. τυπτοῖτδ, τυπτοιξν. 

First Future, I might hereafter strike 

S. tépouus, τυψοις, τυψου, 

D. . τυψοιτον, τυψοίΐτην, 

Ῥ, τύψοιμεν, τυψοιτξ, . τυψοιδν. 
First Aorist, I might have struck 

S. τύψαιμι, Tuas, TUW OL, 

D. cuwastor, τυψαιτην, 

Ρ. τύψαιμεν, τυψαυτξ, TUWaLEY, 

A&olic First Aorist, 
S. τύψεια, Tuwslac, τυψϑδιδ 
D. τυψείατον, τυψειάτην. 


P. τυψείαμεν τυψείατε,. τυψειαν. 


90 
Perfect, I might have been striking. 


S. τετύφοιμι, TETUGOLS, TETUGOL, 
a TETUOLTOV, τετυφοίτην, 
Ῥ, τετύφοιμεν, τοτυφοιτδ, TETUGOLEY, 


Second Aorist, I might have struck. 


S. τύποιμιυ, τυποῖς, τύπου, 
D. πτυπΌιντον, τυποίτην; 
P. τύποιμεν, τυποιτδ, τυποιδν. 


Second Future, I should hereafter strike. 


S. τυποῖμι, tunis, tumor, 
. τυποῖτον, τυποίτην; 
P. τυποῖμεν, TUMOLTE, τυποῖεν 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | 
Present, I may strike. 


S. τύπτω, TUNTYS, TUNTY, 
D. τυπτήτον, TUNTHTOY, 
P. τύπτωμεν, TUNTYTE, τυπτωσι. 


First Aorist, 1 may have struck. 


S. τύψω, - τυψης, τυψη, 

D. τυψητον, τυψητον, 

Ῥ, τύψωμεν ' τύυψητεδ, τυψῶωσι. 
Perfect, I may have been striking. 

S. τετύφω, TETUGTS; TETUN, 

D. τετυφήτον, τετυφήτον, 

P. τετύφωμεν, TETUMYTE, τετυφῶσι. 


Second Aorist, J may have struck. 


, 
S. τύπω, τυπής, τυπή, 
D. τυπήτον, τυπητον, 
Ῥ, τύπωμεν, τυπήτξ, τυπίωσι. 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 


Present, τύπτειν, to strike. 
First Future, σύψειν, to be going to strike. 
First Aorist, τύψαι, to have struck. 


‘a Ύ ΥΥ, ΤΥ ὐ Pee > oy ΡΨ 


91 


Perfect, τετυφέναι, to have been striking. 
Second Aorist, τυπεῖν, to have struck. 
Second Future, τυπεῖν, to be going to strike 


PARTICIPLES. 
N. τύπτων, τυπτουσα, τυπτον, 
Ὁ. τύπτοντος, TUNTOVONS, τυπτοντος, &C. 


First Future, going to strike. 


N. τύψων, τυψουσα, τυψον, 
6. τύψοντος, τυψουσης;, τυψοντος. . 
First Aorist, having struck. 

N. τύψας, τυψασα, τυψαν, 

6. τύψαντος, τυψάσης, τυψαντος. 
Perfect, who has been striking. 

N. τετυφὼς, TETUMViCL, τετυφὸς, 

6. τετυφότος, τετυφυίας, τετυφότος. 
Second Aorist, having struck. 

N. τυπὼν, τυποῦσα, τυπὸν, 

6. τυπόντος, τυπουσῆς, τυπόντος. 
Second Future, going to strike. 

N. τυπῶν, τυποῦσα, τυποῦν, 

Ὁ. τυποῦντος, τυπουσῆς, τυποῦντος. 


General Observation. 


Obs. In the English expression of the tenses, &c. much 
precision is not to be expected. ‘Their use and ‘signification 
depend on the conjunctions and participles to which they are 
joined. ‘The optative, for example, which, in its genuine 
sense, i, 6. expressive of a wish, is never joined with av, is 
seldom used in the potential sense without it. Again, the first 
and second aorist participles are rendered by having, when, in 
fact, the English language has no aorist participle, and having 
is the form of its perfect participle. If we were required to 
give a strict translation to an aorist participle, and such an 
one as would conform nearest to the idiom of our language, 
we should be compelled to use a tense of a verb; thus, 


92 


τοῦτο πονήσας ἀπῆλθεν, is commonly rendered, having done this 
he departed, when in fact it should be, when he did this, he de- 
parted. So ταῦτα ἀκούσας εἶπεν, when he heard these things he 
said. Sometimes a conjunction may be inserted in English, 
as ἰδὼν δὲ, ἐξέδραμε καὶ καθυλάκτει, and he saw and ran and 
kept barking. 


_ AUGMENT. 


Of the Nine Tenses. 


Three receive an Augment continued through 
all the Moods: viz. the Perfect, Pluperfect, and 
Paulo-post-Futurum. 

Three receive an Augment in the Indicative 
only: viz. the Imperfect, and the two Aorists. 

Three receive no Augment: viz. the Present 
and the two Futures. 

There are Two Augments; the Syllabic, when 
the Verb begins with a Consonant; the Tempo- 
ral, when the Verb begins with a Vowel. ‘The 
Syllabic is so called, because it adds a Syllable 
to the word ; the Temporal, because it increases 
the time or quantity of the initial vowel. 


Obs. 1. In Homer, Hesiod, and other old Poets, the use of 
the Augment is very fluctuating. The same word occurs 
sometimes with the Augment, and sometimes without it, while 
other words again have it regularly. This diversity does not 
appear to have been caused by the revisers, the Grammarians, 
or transcribers, since the restoration of consistency in this 
respect would entirely destroy the measure and rhythm of the 
verses. In Herodotus and other prose writers, the Augment 
is almost regular, but it is also sometimes omitted. The At- 
tics again observed it regularly, except in passages of the 
poets where the language was formed upon the model of the 
ancient language, as, for example, in the chorusses of the 
Dramatic writers. 

Obs. 2. The Augment appears originally to have consisted, 
in all cases, of the prefix 8, as well in words beginning with 
a vowel as in those which began with a consonant, Thus we 
still find in the old Ionic Poets, ἑάφθη for 167; ἕεστο for efoto, 


93 


&c. This kind of Augment occurs more rarely in Herodotus, 
and only in certain words ; as, ἑάνδανε, ἕαδε, ἑάλωκα, ἐόργεε, 
&c. On the other hand, we find in him, οἶκα, oixdés, for the 
Homeric ἔοικα, ἐοικώς. ‘The Attics retained this 8 in some 
words ; as, for example, in ἔαξε, ἐάγη, ἐαγώς, from ἄγω, frango, 
to distinguish them from ἦξα, &c. from ἄγω, fero: in ἑάλωκα 
and ἑάλω: in ἔοικα, ἔολπα, ἔοργα, because in these three the 
characteristic of the perfect middle, ov and o, could not be ef- 
faced : but particularly in verbs beginning with a vowel which 
is not capable of being lengthened, as ἐώθουν, wopar, from 
ὠθέω; ἐωνούμην, ἐώνημαι, from ὠγέομαν; δούρουν, from οὐρέω. 
Afterwards, however, the usage was thus far determined, that 
8 was only prefixed to verbs which began with a consonant ; 
while in others beginning with a vowel, it coalesced with a 
long vowel or a diphthong. ‘The first is called, as has been 
already stated, the Syllabic Augment, the latter the Temporal. 

Obs. 3. 'The Augment serves to prevent ambiguity ; else 
the Imperfect τύπτε would be confounded with the Imperative, 
and the First Aorist τύψας with the Participle. 


1, Syllabic Augment. 
RULES. 


1. The Imperfect and the Two Aorists simply 
prefix an ε, aS ἔτυπτον, ἔτυψα, ἔτυπον. 

2. The Augment of the Perfect tense is form- 
ed by repeating the initial consonant of the verb, 
and by annexing an e, as cétuga. This repeti- 
tion of the initial consonant is called Reduplica- 
tion. If the initial consonant be an aspirate, 
then, according to the rules of Euphony, instead 
of the aspirate, the corresponding smooth must be 
used, as φιλέω, I love, perfect, πεφίληκα, not ge- 
φίληκα ; θύω, 1} sacrifice, perf. tébuxa, not bébuxa. 

3. The Augment of the Pluperfect is formed 
by prefixing « to the Reduplication of the Perfect, 
as ἐτετύφειν. 

4, The Paulo-post-futurum, which is formed 
from the Perfect, has the reduplicative augment 
hike that tense, as terbwouat. 

g* 


OR, 0 Le oan NEL aS a ew meee yh POT ON 


94 


Exceptions and Remarks. 
Oss. l. 


1. In Verbs beginning with @, after the augment @ is dou- 
bled, as ῥίπτω, I cast, imperfect, ἔῤῥιπτον ; géw, I flow, imper- 
fect, 26 sor. 

2. In the three verbs βούλομαι, I will, δύναμαι, I am able, 
μέλλω, I am about, the Attics often prefix the temporal instead 
of the syllabic augment; as ἠδουλόμην, ἠδυνάμην, ἤμελλον, 
There appears indeed, to be some analogy between these 
verbs in point of meaning.* 

3. The Ionians, and all the Poets except the Attics, often 
omit the augment in the imperfect, pluperfect, and the two 
aorists ; as xaéovto for ἐκαίοντο: τύφεισαν for ἐτετύφεισαν, 
δέξατο for ἐδέξατο ; βῆ for ἔθη. In the pluperfect this is done 
even in prose. 

4. In Homer, Hesiod, and other poets, the second aorist 
active and middle often receive the reduplication, and retain 
it throughout the moods ; as κεκάμον, xexcuw; for ἐκάμον, κά- 
po; from κάμνω; πέπιθον, πεπιθεῖν ; for ἔπιθον, πιθεῖν ; from 
πείθω. 


ΟΒ5. 2. 


1. If the verb begin with ᾧ, the perfect and pluperfect do 
not take the reduplication, but the ὁ is doubled, and ε prefixed, 
as δίπτω, ἔῤΡιφα. vid. Obs. 1. Rule 1. Homer, however, has 
δερυπωμένα, Od. ζ', 59. 

2. When a verb begins with a double consonant, instead of 
the reduplication, ¢ alone is used, as ζητέω, ἐξζήεηκα; ξέω, 
ἔξεσμαι; ψάλλω, ἔψαλκα. 

3. In most cases also where the verb begins with two con- 
sonants, no reduplication takes place, but « alone is used ; as 
onsiow, tonaguar; φθείρω, ἔφθαρκα ; κτίζω, ἔκτισμαι. 

Τὸ this last, however, there are exceptions. 1. When ἃ 
verb begins with two consonants, the first of which is a mute 
and the second a liquid, the general rule operates; as γράφω, 
γέγραφα ; πνέω, ménvevxa; κλίνω, κέκλικα. But γν, and often 
y4, assume only asingle δ, as γγωρίζω, ἐγνώρισμαν ; καταγλω- 
titw, κατεγλωτισμένος. 2. The verbs xtéouar, and μνάομαι, are 
also exceptions, and form κέκτημαι, μέμνημαι, 3. The irregu- 
lar perfect πέπταμαι, must also be excepted. 

4. Inverbs beginning with 4 and μ, the Ionians, Attics, and 
others, are accustomed to put δὲ for 4e and me, as λαμβάνω, 
perf. εἴληφα for λέληφα ; μείρομαι, perf. δἴμαρμαι for μέμαρμαι. 

5. The Perfect of Latin verbs also sometimes takes ἃ re- 


95 


duplication, as do, ded: ; pungo, pupugi; tango, tetagr, &c. It 
is worthy of notice, that all the verbs which have this redu- 
plication in the perfect, made it anciently in e, proving this 
therefore to be a manifest derivation from the Greek form. 
Thus, in the early state of the Latin language, they said, ac- 
cording to the authority of Aulus Gellius, memordi, peposci, 
pepugt, spespondi, &c. Some verbs, we perceive, still retain 
this e; in others it is changed. Gellius states that Cicero 
and Cesar both used these old forms. 


Il. Temporal Augment. 


The Temporal Augment in general changes 
a into, as ἄγω, ἦγον. 
into ἡ, as ἐλπίζω, ἤλπιζον. 
into t, as ἵχάνω, txavoy. 
into ὦ, as ὀπάζω, ὥπαζον. 
into v, as ὕξρέίζω, ὕξριζον. 
αὖ into ἢ, as αἴ, τ ἢρον. 
av into nv, as αὐξάνω, ἡύξανον. 
eu into NU, as εὔχομαι, ἠυχόμην. 
οὐ into @, as οἰχίζω, ὥχιεζον, 
8 15 changed in some verbs into él, as é 'χω, εἶχον. 
€0 18 changed into ew, as ἑορτάζω, ἑὠώρταζον. 


Of the other vowels already long, e usually 
pecomes ἢ; while ἢν ὦ, t, v, admit no augment 
whatever ; as, ἡστάομαι, ἥττώμην, ἥττημαι, We. 


e. 0° = ὦ 


Exceptions and Remarks. 


1. All these changes from the long to the short vowel, had 
their origin in the coalescing or contracting of the syllabic aug- 
ment & with the initial vowel of the verb ; as ἐαγον, ἦγον ; ἐξλπι- 
tor, ἤλπιζον. Among these contractions, those of 88 into ἡ, 
and é0 into ὦ, are not so much in conformity with the common 
ἐν of contractions, as that of es into δι. 

. The verbs which change « into δι, are the elnene : 


ἐάω, ἐλκύω, ἐρύω. 
ἔθω, ἔπω, ἐστιάω. 
ἐθίζω, ἔχοι; ἔχω. 
ἕλω, ἐργάζομαι, ἕω. 
ἐλίσσω, ἕρπω. 


ἕλκω, δρπύζω, 


96 


Of these, the verb ἔπω has given rise to much discussion. 
While some consider it merely as another instance of the 
change of 8 into δι, others maintain that εἶπα, εἶπον, &c. do 
not properly come from ἔπω, but from the form εὔπω, with the. 
first syllable lengthened after the manner of the Ionians ; for 
they assert, that, if it be viewed as coming from ἔπω, δι would 
be an augment, and would be retained throughout the moods 
contrary to all analogy. 

3. In general where the augment would interfere with eu- 
phony, or produce confusion, we find it omitted, and the verb 
remaining unchanged. ‘The following instances are particu- 
larly worthy of notice. 

Verbs in «: No augment takes place in ἀηδίζομαι, ἀηθέσσω, 
ato, dw, only that in «fw the short a is lengthened. The long 
« also remains unchanged in the old Attic, in ἀναλόω, (com- 
monly ἀναλίσκω,) ἀνάλωκα, ἀνάλωσα, &c. In the modern At- 
tic, however, and in the other dialects, we have alternately 
ἀνήλωσα and ἠνάλωσα, and in the perfect ἀνήλωκα and ἠγάλωκα. 

Verbs in δ: The 8 remains unchanged in ἑρμηνεύω. 

Verbs in ev: These have no augment ; with the single ex- 
ception of εἰκάζω which takes one in the Atéic writers, as, εἰ- 
κάζω, εἴκασα, εἴκασμαι : Att. ἤκασα, ἤκασμαι. 

Verbs in ev: The usage in these is far from being certain; 
εὖ is often changed into ἣν in editions, although the readings, 
in this respect, are very fluctuating ; frequently one or more 
MSS. have 7v where the editions give ev. ‘The Grammarians 
for the most part condemn qv. The verb εὑρίσκω, with a very 
few exceptions, never has yu. 

Verbs in ov: Some verbs in o seldom or never receive the 
augment. Such are οἰνόω, and words compounded of οἰωνός, 
and οἵαξ͵ as οἰωνοσκοπῶ, ofuxovoud. Others, as οἐόω, οἰμέω, oc- 
cur only in Tonic, and on that account have no augment. 

4. The Attics in some words prefix δ instead of the tempo- 
ral augment, particularly in verbs which begin with an im- 
mutable vowel, as, au for 7a; ἑάλωκα for ἥλωκα, They also 
prefix the syllabic augment to the temporal, as ἑώρων, ἑώρακα, 
from 694; instead of which, the Ionic ὥρων, dgaxa, rarely 
occur in their works. In the same manner, the compound 
ἀνοίγω makes ἀνέῳφξα, ἀνέῳγμαι, ἀνέῳγα, not ἀνῷξα, ἀνῷγμαι. 


Attic Reduplication. 


In verbs which begin with a vowel, the Jonians, but still 
more the Attics, use a sort of reduplication, repeating the 
first letters of the perfect and pluperfect, but imstead of the 


97 


long vowel taking the corresponding short one; as, ἀγήγερκα 
for ἤγερκα, from ἀγεέρω ; ὀρώρυχα for Sguze, from ὀρύσσω ; ὄδω- 
δὰ for oda, from btw; ἐμήμεκα for ἤμεκα, from ἐμέω ; δλήλυθα 
for ἤλυθα, from %gzouce ; ἀκήκοα for ἤκοα, from ἀκούω ; ἐλήλαμαν 
for ἤλαμαι, from ἐλάω. 

In ἐγρήγορα ἃ ο is added, probably from the abbreviation of 
the present tense ἔγρομαν for ἐγείρομαι: ἀραίρηκα, ἀραίρημαι, 
are merely Ionic forms for ἥρακα, ἥρημαι, from αἱρέω. 

In the pluperfect the vowel is made long in the reduplica- 
tion; as ἠκηκόειν ; ὠρώρυκτο; ἠληλάμην; except only ἐλύλυθα, 
which makes ἐληλύθειν. 


ΤΠ. Augment in Compound Verbs. 


1. Verbs compounded with a Preposition take 
the Augment between the Preposition and the 
Verb, as προσβαλλω, προσέβαλλον. 


1. The prepositions (with the exception of zegl,) throw 
away the final vowel when they stand in composition before 
a vowel; as ἀπέχω, from ἀπὸ and ἔχω. In the case of the 
preposition πρό, the ὁ is usually contracted with ¢; as προὔβη 
for προέθη, from πρό and βαίνω. 

2. If, after this elision, the Preposition comes before an as- 
pirate, it changes its soft into an aspirate; as ἀφαιρέω, from 
ἀπὸ and αἱρέω. : 

3. Ex in composition becomes ἐξ before a vowel, as ἐκφέρω, 
ἐξέφερον. ᾿Εν and σὺν, which change the » before a consonant, 
resume it before a vowel, as ἐμμένω, ἐνέμενον, Σὺ» some- 
times drops the », as συζητέω. P is double after a vowel, as 
Ova d ῥέω. 


2. Verbs compounded with εὖ and δὺς, if they 
are susceptible of the temporal augment, take it 
in the middle also between these particles and 
the verb; as εὐορχέω, εὐώρχουν : δυσαρεστέω ; 
δυσηρέστουγ. 


When, however, an immutable vowel or a consonant fol- 
lows these particles, the verb either receives the augment at 
the beginning, as δυσωπέω, ἐδυσώπουν ; εὐφραίνομαι, ηὐφραίνο- 
μην; δυστυχέω, δεδυστύχηκα; or those beginning with εὖ more 
commonly take no augment, as δὐωχέομαιν, δὐωχούμην. 


98 
General Remarks on the Augment of Compound Verbs. 


Obs. 1. In the case of some compound verbs, whose sim- 
ple verb is nearly or quite obsolete, the augment precedes the 
preposition. In this, however, the custom is not invariable, 
since many verbs of this kind in some writers receive the 
augment in the beginning, in others in the middle ; thus, from 
καθεύδω we have both ἐκάθευδον and καθηῦδον, the latter some- 
times in the best writers; from κάθημαι we have ἐκαθήμην and 
κάθημην. 

Οὖς. 2. In general all such verbs as are not so much them- 
selves compounded with another word, as derived immediately 
from a compound word of another part of speech, have the aug- 
ment at the beginning; as οἰκοδομέω, ὠκοδόμουν, from οἰκοδό- 
μος ; στρατοπδδεύω, ἐστρατοπέδευσα, from στρατόπεδον. It will 
be found hence, that many verbs, in which the preposition 
enters, prefix the augment, they coming immediately from a 
compound term; as ἐναντιοῦμαι, ἠνὰντιούμην, from ἐναντίος ; 
. ἀντιθολῶ, ἠντιθόλουν, from αντιδολὴ. It is most usual, how- 
ever, even in such verbs, that the augment follow the prepo- 
sition, as ἐξεκλησίασαν, from ἐκκλησιάζω, though it come from 
ἐκκλησία ; προφητεύω, προεφήτευσα, though it come from προ- 
φήτης ; ἐπιτηδεύω, ἐπιτετήδευκα, though it come from ἐπίτη- 
Ons; &c. 

Obs. 3. Some verbs take an augment both before and after 
the preposition; as, ἀνορθόω, ἠνώρθοον; ἐνοχλέω, ἠνώχλουν ; 
ἀνέχω, ἠνειχόμην, ἠνεσχόμην  παροινέω, ἐπαρῴνησα, πεπαρῴνη- 
κα, ἐπαρῳνήθην. A still greater irregularity, however, exists 
in the verbs διακονέω and diovrdw ; from the former we have, 
in the writings of the modern Attics and Atticists, δεδιηκόνηκα, 
and from the other ἐδιήτησα, though the verbs respectively 
come from dvaéxovos and δίαιτα, where the @ forms the begin- 
ning of no new word. 


FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 
The Imperfect 


is formed from the present, by prefixing the Aug- 
‘ment, and changing ὦ into oy, as τύπτω, ἔτυπτον. 


Obs. The Ionians and Dorians use a peculiar augment, 
which consists in the termination oor, in which case the pro- 
per augment is omitted; as πέμπεσκε for ἔπεμπε: axe for sie ; 
δάμνασκε for ἐδάμνα. So also in the passive, ποιέβσκδτο for 


99 


énolerto; βαλλέσκετο for ἐβάλλετο. This form is even used by 
an Attic writer, Sophocles ἀπέ. 963. as maveoxe. 


The First Future 


is formed from the Present, by changing the last 
syllable in the 

First Conjugation into wa, as τύπτω, τὐψω; 

in the Second into gm, as λέγω, λέξω; 

in the Third into ow, as tiw, tiow; 

in the Fourth, by circumflexing the last sylla- 
ble, and shortening the penultima, as ψάλλω, 
ψαλῶ. 


These several changes, which are more or less dependant 
upon the general principle of euphony, will be found explained 
under Obs. 2. next, following. 


Verbs in dw, ἕω, and éw, in general change a 
and ε into 7, and o into w; as τιμάω, τιμήσω ; φι- 
λέω, φιλήσω ; δηλόω, δηλώσω. (Obs. 4.) 

Four verbs change the soft of the first syllable 
into an aspirate breathing; viz. 


ἔχω, ἕξω. τρέφω, θρέψω. 
τρέχω, θρέξω. τύφω, θύψω. 


The reason of this change is given in Obs. 6. next fol- 
lowing. 

Obs. 1. The original termination of the future appears to 
have been the same in all verbs, namely, ἔσω, from. Thus 
we find yet, ὀλέσω from ὄλω, ἀφέσω from dew. The primitive 
form ἔσω underwent a double change: partly on account of 
euphony, and partly to distinguish, by different forms, two 
senses of a word, in some verbs δ, m others o, was rejected. 
The first form remained peculiar to the AXolians, and hence 
the Grammarians called ἄρσαι, κύρσαν, in Homer, AZolic forms ; 
the second, which rejects o, was chiefly peculiar to the loni- 
ans and Attics, both of whom, the latter regularly, contract ἕω 
into ὦ. ‘The Attics do this exclusively in verbs whose charac- 
teristic is 4, u, ¥,@; as ἀγγέλλω, fut. ἀγγελῶ; βρέμω, fut. Boeue ; 
μένω, fut. μενῶ ; σπείρω, fut. oxegH; in the rest they have for 
the most part o, but in the futures in ἔσω, dow dow, low, they 


100 


very frequently reject o, and contract what remains, as καλῶ 
for καλέσω, 20 for ἐλάσω. ὀμῦυμαι for ὀμόσομαι, οἰκτιῶ for οἱκτίσω. 

Thus from the original form of the future cow, which re- 
mained only in some verbs, two new forms in ow and éw con- 
tracted G, arose ; the latter of which was used chiefly in verbs 
whose characteristic was 4, u, v, 9, the former in the rest. 
The former is generally denominated the First Future ; the 
other also is called the First Future in verbs whose charac- 
teristic is 4, μ, », @; in the rest it is termed the Second Fu- 
ture. This Second Future, however, is, after all, an imagi- 
nary tense, being a mere invention of the Grammarians, and 
ought in strictness to be banished from the common School- 
Grammars. 

Obs. 2. All the changes mentioned above, as occurring in 
the several conjugations, are grounded upon the existence of 
the old form éow, and the principle of euphony. According 
to the rules of euphony, the consonants 0, 0, τ, ¢, are omitted 
before o, and the remaining consonants β, 7, 9, y, %, 7, are 
united with the o following, and form the double consonants, 
y and ; while if » precedes, ὃ, 9, τ, ¢, it is thrown out, but 
that the syllable may remain long, ὁ is inserted after δ; hence 
we have the following changes: 

Ist. Conjugation. Oldest form of the future, τυπτέσω, re- 
jecting «, by Syncope, we have τύπτσω, rejecting t before σ, 
by the rule of euphony, we have τύπσω, and lastly, by substi- 
tuting the double consonant for 70, there results τύψω. 

2d. Conjugation. Oldest form of the future, λεγέσω, reject- 
ing the 8 we have λέγσω, and by a substitution of the double 
consonant, λέξω. There are some classes of verbs, which 
fall under this conjugation, in which other and older forms of 
the present must be supposed in order to deduce the future in 
éw; these are, 


1. Verbs in ζω, as κράζω, oiuatw, ὀλολύζω, στάζω. It is very 
probable that the original form of these verbs was in 
yo, as κράγω, oludyw, &c. This may be inferred from 
the second aorist ἔχραγον, and from the derivative 
forms οἰμωγή, ὀλολυγή, σταγών. Hence it is easy to 
account for the future in §; thus, oldest form κραγέσω, 
by syncope πράγσω, by substituting the double conso- 
nant κράξω: and in a similar way of the rest. 

But some verbs in tw have both ἕξω and ow in the future, 
as ἁρπάζω, παίζω, oveltw, &c. In these § is the an- 
cient form, which is retained in Doric ; while ow is the 
later and softened form. 


101 


Other verbs in ζω take y before §; as κχλάζω, πλάγξω; 
πλάζω, πλάγξω. These come from old forms in yy, 
as xhéyyw, πλάγγω ; hence, oldest form πλαγγέσω, by 
syncope κλάγγσω, by substitution κλάγξω: and so of 
others. Σ 

2. Verbs in gow and t1w,as φρέσσω, ταράσσω, σφάττω or σφά- 
tw. The greater part, if not all of these, are derived 
from older forms in κω and yo: as φρίσσω, from φρίκω, 
whence φρίκῃ ; ταράσσω, from ταράχω, hence taggyé- 
ow, by syncepe ταράχσω, by substitution ταράξω ; Kc. 
There are also verbs in gow and ττὼ of the third con- 
jugation ; these are mentioned in the next article. 

3d. Conjugation. Oldest form of the future τιέσω ; rejecting 
8 by syncope we have τίσω. ‘There are some verbs in gow 
and ττῶ, which are of this conjugation ; as ἁρμόττω or ἁρμόζω, 
future ἁρμόσω; πλάσσω, πλάσω; ἱμάσσω, iudow; ὅς. These 
are considered merely as lengthened forms of verbs pure, and 
hence have ow in the future. 

4th. Conjugation. In verbs whose characteristic is 4, μι, », 
e, the lonians generally, and the Attics exclusively, use the 
form ἕω, contracted ©, for the future, as has been already re- 
marked. In this case, however, the penultima, which was 
long in the present, is always made short, probably because 
the tone then rested chiefly on the last syllable ; thus 7 was 
changed into @; αἱ; δι, ov, into a, 6,0, and evintov. Thus, 
αἴρω, ἀρῶ; σπείρω, σπερῶ, &c. If the penultima be long by 
position, the latter of the two consonants is rejected; as ψαλ- 
λέσω, by rejecting one of the 4’s, and by syncope, ψαλέω, and 
lastly, by contraction ψαλῶ. So also στέλλω, στελῶ; téurw, 
Teu@; κτδίνω, κτενῶ; Sc. In the same manner, the doubtful 
vowels, which were long in the present, become short in the 
future ; as xorva, xorve :* ἀμύνω, ἀμῦνῶ. 

In some verbs the « which thus arises from the abbrevia- 
tion, is often changed into α in dissyllables, because δ, in the 
rapidity of pronunciation, becomes more indistinct, and ap- 
proaches nearer in sound to @ or 0; thus teuvw makes teu@ 
and tau; &c. This is commonly, though incorrectly, styled 
the 2d. Future. 

Obs. 3. The analogy of formation extends in some measure 
to the Latin. The Perfect of the third conjugation is formed 
from the present, by changing ὁ into si; as scribo, scribst or 
seripst ; dico, dicst or dixt; figo, figsi or fiat; demo, demsi or 
dempst; carpo, carpst; &c. To avoid. harshness, a letter is 
frequently left out, as parco, parsi ; ludo, lusi; &c. The s too 
is frequently omitted; and sometimes in that case it is re- 

10 


102 


sumed in the supine, as scando, scandt, scansum; verto, verti, 
versum, &c. 

Obs. 4. Verbs Pure. The following exceptions occur to 
the rule given for the formation of the future of verbs in dw, 
ἕω, and dw: 

1. Verbs in éw, whose final syllable is preceded by the vow- 


= 


els 8 and ε, or by the consonants 4 and g, make the fu- 
ture in dow; as ἐάω, ἐάσω; μειδιάω, μειδιάσω, γελάω, 
γελάσω ; δράω, δράσω ; to which add κρεμάω, κρεμάσω. 
The following are exceptions; χράω, χρήσω ; ταλάω, 
contracted tiéw, τλήσω;: and most verbs which have 
8, 0, before the final ew, as βοάω, βοήσω; ἀλοάω, ἀλοή- 
ow: ἀκροάομαι, however, makes ἀκροάσομαι. 


The Ionians, however, often put an ἡ, 6. g. περήσω, as the 


Dorians universally do an α, 6. g. βοάσω, τιμάσω. 


The verb xam, an Attic coritracted form for καίω, and the 


verb κλᾶω, a similar one for κλαέω, both make etow in 
the future; as, καύσω, κλαύσω, like the verbs from which 
they are contracted. Both these verbs, κάω and xiaw, 
have no contractions, and the student must be careful 
not to confound this κλᾶω with the long α, with κλᾶω, 
frango, a contract verb, whose penult is short. 


2 Verbs in éw sometimes make éow in the future ; these are 


\ 


τελέω, ἀρκέω, ξέω, ἀκέομαι, ἀλέω, ἐμέω, verxéw, &c. Some 
verbs which are comprehended under this head, come 
from verbs in w, as ὀλέσω, dgéow, αἰδέσομαι, from ὄλω, 
&ow, αἴδομαν ; and, probably, in τελέω, ἀρκέω, and the 
rest which have been mentioned, the future in éow is 
from the primitive forms τέλω, doxw, ἄκομαι, ἄλω, ἔμω, 
velxw; instead of which the forms in éw came subse- 
quently into use. 


Some verbs in ἕω have éow and ήσω in the future, because 


there were two forms in the present tense, each of 
which had its future ; one of these forms, however, is 
always more in use than the other; thus, καλέω and 
aivéw,in Attic, have commonly καλέσω, aivéow; and 
δέω, ποθέω, and movéw, have more commonly δήσω, ποθή- 
ow, πονήσω. Other verbs which have éow and jou, 
are βδέω, κηδέω, κοπέω, κορέω, κοτέω, στερέω, φορέω. 


Some verbs in éw have, in the future, stow, as θέω, I run: 


which makes also θεύσομαι: véw, I swim: πλέω, I sail: 
nviw, 7 blow: ῥέω, I flow: χέω, I pour. These futures 
are probably from the Zolo-Doric Dialect, in which the 
Digamma was often expressed by v; and they are thus 
formed to distinguish them from θήσω, the future of 


103 


τίθημι ; νήσω, the future of Ῥέω, νήθω, I spin: πλήσω, 
the future of πλήθω, I fill: δήσω, the future of ῥέω, I 
speak : and yéow, the future of χέζω. 

3. Verbs in éw, which are not derivative, make dow, not dow, 
in the future, as dudw (whence duvupe borrows) ὀμόσω; 
ἀρόω, ἀρόσω ; ὀνόω, ὀνόσω. 

Obs. 5. Many Barytone verbs are frequently formed by the 
Attics and Ionians like contracted verbs, by changing into 
yow: as βάλλω, βάλλήσω ; διδάσκω, διδασκήσω ; καθεύδω, καθευ- 
Ojon; κλαίω, κλαιήσω ; νέμω, νεμήσω; which is the only future 
in use in this verb; τύπτω, τυπτήσω; hence also, βούλομαι, 
βουλήσομαι; olouar, οἴήσομαι ; οἴχομαι, οἱχήσομαι. Probably 
this form was occasioned by a custom, on the part of the 
Jonians, of lengthening many verbs in ὦ, by substituting the 
termination ἕω. The lonians said, for instance, μαχέομαι, 
συμθαλλέομαι, &c. What might regularly take place in some 
verbs, was afterwards transferred by custom to other verbs 
also, without implying the necessity or utility of considering 
every future in ἥσω, as having for its basis a present in éw. 

Οὖς. 6. The verbs ἔχω, τρέχω, τρέφω, τύφω, were originally 
ἕχω, θρέχω, θρέφω, θύφω, and were changed with their initial 
letter into a soft, for euphony sake, inasmuch as two succes- 
sive syllables can seldom commence each with an aspirate : 
in the future, however, the second aspirate disappears, and 
therefore the first is restored, as ἕξω, θρέξω, &c. this is clearly 
evinced by the perfect, which in the active is tétgega, and 
not τέθρεφα, but in the Passive τέθραμμαι. 


The First Aorist 


is formed from the First Future by prefixing 
the Augment, and changing into a, as τύψω, 
ἔτυψα. 

A doubtful vowel in the penultima of the First 
Aorist of the Fourth Conjugation, is made long ; 
α is changed into n; and 8 Into εἰ, as χρϊνῶ, ἔχρῖνα ; 
ψαλῶ, ἔψηλα; ἀμῦνῶ, ἤμῦνα. 


Obs. If the penult of the Present has αὖ, that of the First 
Aorist, in the common Dialect has α, in the Attic 7; as o7- 
μαίνω, σημανῶ, ἐσήμανα, Attic ἐσήμηνα. ‘The lonians also 
adopt 7 instead of α in such verbs, a as pone καθαρῶ, ἐκάθαρα, 
Ἰοηΐῖο, ἐκάθηρα, 


104 


*Evne and ἤνεγκα are formed from the Pre- 
sent; qa, ἔθηκα, ἔδωκα, from the Perfect. 
The following drop the o of the Future ; 


ἀκέω, ἤκδια. κπέω, ἔκεια. 
ἀλεύω, ἤλευα. σεύω, ἔσδνα. 
καίω, ἔκηα. χέω, ἔχδξα. 


» The Perfect 


is formed from the First Future by prefixing the 
Continued Augment, and changing in the 

Ist. Conjugation, wé into ga, as τύψω, τέτυφα; 

in the 2d. Conjugation, ἕω into χα, as λέξω, 
λέλεχα:; | 

in the 3d. Conjugation, ow into χα, as τίσω, 
τέτιχα; Ν 

in the 4th. Conjugation, ὥ into χα, as ψαλῶ, 
ἔψαλκα. 

_Dissyllables in λὼ and ow, change ὥ into χα, 
, and the ε of the First Future into a, as στελῶ, 
ἔσταλκα, from στέλλω; σπερῶ, ἔσπαρχα, from 
σπείρω ; Polysyllables, on the contrary, retain 
the ¢; as ἀγγελῶ, ἤγγελκα, from ἀγγέλλω. 

Verbs in wa, vyw, and «yw, throw away ν be- 
fore x, and retain the short vowel of the future: 
which, however, in verbs in δίνω, is changed into 
& 3 as χρινῶ, κέχρεχα, from χρίνω; χεενῶ, ἔχτακχα, 
from χεείνω ; πλυνῶ, πέπλυχκα, from πλύνω. 

Verbs in aivw change ν before x into 7; as φα- 
va, πέφαγκα, from φαίγω ; μιανῶ, μεμίαγκα, from 
μιαίνω. 


Οὐς.1. As the Perfect in some verbs pre-supposes a future 
’ in ἔσω, so verbs in um and vw particularly pre-suppose a future 
in ἤσω, and change ὦ into na; as, γεμῶ, νενέμηκα ; μενῶ, με- 
μένηκα, δραμῶ, δεδράμηκα ; to which the Grammarians also 
add, βρεμῶ, βεδρέμηκα ; τρεμῶ, τετρέμηκα. So from δαίω, or 
δέω, comes the perfect δεδάηκα, as if from a future δαήσω : 


105 


from ῥύω comes ἐῤῥύηκα ; from χαίρω, κεχάρηκα. Some suffer 
syncope, as βέβληκα for βεθάληκα; δέδμηκα for δεδέμηκα, from 
δέμω; κέκμηκα for κεκάμηκα, from καμγὼ ; τέτμηκα for tetéun- 
xa, from τέμνω. In these perfects, the futures in ἤσω, as βα- 
λήσω, δραμήσω, μενήσω, &c. are pre-supposed; which, how- 
ever, were hardly in use any more than the forms of the present 
μεγέω, δραμέω, which some assume. 

Obs. 2. In some verbs pure, and also in φύω, the Tonians 
and Afolians reject » in the perfect, in which case ἡ either 
remains unchanged, or becomes ἃ or δ» according as it was 
derived from @ or δ inthe present. ‘Thus éoryd for ἑστηκὼς - 
τεθνηώς for τεθνηκὼς ; βεϑαώς for βεβηκὼς, from βάω. Often, 
after this, 7@¢, ηός, are contracted into ὡς, in which case the 
Tonians and Attics often insert 8, as ἑστ- ώς, -δῶτος ; τοθ»-δώς, 
- eO10¢. 


The Pluperfect 


is formed from the Perfect, by prefixing ε to the 
Continued Augment, if there is a Reduplication, ᾿ 
and changing ἃ into ev; as tétuga, ἐτετύφειν. 


Obs. The original termination of this tense appears to have 
been δα, which occurs in Homer and Herodotus, 6. g. in the 
perfect middle, πεποίθεα, Od. t, 44; ἐτεθήπεα, Od. ζ΄, 167. 
This δὰ was changed, as in the Augment, sometimes into ἡ, 
(whence the Attic and Doric forms ἤδη, κεχήνη,) and some- 
times into e+ with the addition of ». 


The Second Aorist 


is formed from the Present by prefixing the Aug- 
ment, changing @ into oy, and shortening the pe- 
nultima, as τύπτω, ἔτυπον. 


The Penultima is shortened, 


1. In vowels, by the change of 


7 λήδω, ἔλᾶἄδον, (vid. Obs. 3.) 
, , Vv 
: δ᾽ ToMyw, ἔτρἄγον. 
into ἃ, as germs Ai ἵ 
αὖ paiva, ἔφᾶνον. 
au παύω, ἔπᾶον 


ev ἰηΐοῖ, ἃ5Β λείπω, ἔλίπον. 
᾿δὺ Intot,as φεύγω, epiyor. 
10" 


106 


In Dissyllables of the Fourth Conjugation, « 
and e are changed into α, as δέρω, deo; σπείρω, 
ἔσπᾶρον. In Polysyllables ἐν is changed into e, 
as ἀγείρω, ἤγερον. (vid. Obs. 2.) 

2. In consonants, by the omission of ¢, and of 
the last of two liquids; as τύπτω, étimoy; ψάλ- 
Aw, ἔψάλον. 

Some Mutes are changed into 


others of the 
same order; thus, : 


βλάπτω, ἔθλᾶδον. 
a into β, οὐ καλύπιτω, ἐκάλυθον. 
Ε 


πὶ into φ, 85 4 


— 


z into 7, as ; 


πκρύπτω, 
ἅπτω, 
βάπτω, 
θάπτω, 

ες 
ῥάπτω, 
σκάπτω, 
ῥίπτω, 

, 
δρύπτω, 
σμύχω, 
ψύχω, 


ἔκρῦδον. 
For, 
ἔδᾶφον. 
ἔτᾶφον. 


ἐφῥαφον. 
ἔσκἄφον. 


ἐῤῥιφον. 
ἐδρῦφον. 
ἔσμῦγον. 


ἔψῦγον. 


it Obs. 5.) 
(seldom found.) 
(seldom found.) 
(seldom found.) 


(seldom found.) 


Verps in Cw and oow of the Second Conjuga- 
tion, form the Second Aorist in yor; of the Third 
Conjugation, in doy; as, πράσσω, πράξω, ἔπρα- 
γον ; φράζω, φράσω, ἔφραδον. (vid. Obs. 6.) 

Verbs pure want the Second Aorist, and the 
forms which do occur come from barytone verbs 
that are sometimes met with in the present; thus 
ἔδουπον from δουπέω ; ἔλακον from λήκω ; ἔμυχον 
from μύκω. 

The Second Aorist is wanting also in all de- 
rivative verbs formed from other verbs with a 
regular termination, like ζω, ifw, aivw, ὑνω, eto. 
All verbs, moreover, which cannot undergo any 
of the changes mentioned ahove, as ἐρύω, γράφω, 
&c. and all verbs in which there would be no dif- 
ference between the Second Aorist and Imper- 
fect, except in the quantity of the vowel, want 


107 


the former tense. ‘They may have, however, a 
Second Aorist Passive, as ἐγράφη». 

Of other verbs, the greater part have the First 
Aorist, and much the smaller portion the Second, 
although it is assumed in the grammar even in 
verbs which do not possess it, in order to teach 
the formation of other tenses, particularly the 
Second Aorist Passive. 


Observations on the Second Aorist. 


Obs. 1. Tne true mode of forming this tense is undoubtedly 
from the second future, as it is called. (vid. Obs. 6. below, 
and the observations on the second future.) 

Obs. 2. From the necessity of a short penultima in the 
second aorist, it frequently happens that when two consonants 
come together they are transposed, as δέρκω, ἔδρακον ; πέρθω, 
ἔπραθον. ‘These forms, however, occur only in the Ionic and 
other old poets. 

Obs. 3. Πλήσσω, to strike the body, makes ἔπληγον ; to 
strike the mind, ἔπλαγον. 

Obs. 4. The change of « into « in the second aorist of Dis- 
syllables of the Fourth Conjugation, takes place in some verbs 
beginning with a Mute and Liquid, as πλέκω, ἔπλακον ; κλέπ 
τω, ἔκλαπον ; στρέφω, ἔστραφον. 

Obs. 5. The aorists ἔδλαδον, ἔκαλυδον, ἔκρυθδον, are sup- 
posed to come from the old radical forms, βλάδω, xadibw, κρύ- 
6w, With regard, however, to the verbs which change π of 
the present into g in the second aorist, as θάπτω, ῥάπτω, δίπ- 
τω, Ogintw, it must be observed, that many are led to consider 
these second aorists as coming from old radical forms τάφω, 
ῥάφω, δίφω, θρύφω ; whereas, on the contrary, these last appear 
to have been originally themselves derivative forms instead of 
τάπω, ῥάπω, ῥίπω, τρύπω. 

Obs. 6. Verbs, which in the present have ¢ or σσ, receive 
in the future either ἔω or ow, according as they are of the 
second or fourth Conjugation. When they form: the future in 
Ew, then ¢ and oo are considered as equivalent to y, x, Or x. 
Hence ξω is from yéom, and by rejecting the ¢ we have yéw, 
which by contraction becomes 7@, whence the second aorist 
γον ; taus, πράσσω, πράξω, (πραγέσω, πραγέω, πραγῶ,) ἔπραγον. 
If again the future of these verbs is in ow, where σ has re- 
jected the lingual 0, this 5 necessarily enters again into the 


108 


second aorist, as φράζω, φράσω, (φραδέσω, poadéw, φραδῶ,) ἔφρα- 
δον, This all proceeds on the supposition, however, that the 
second aorist is formed from the future, which is undoubtedly 
the true mode of deriving it. vid. Obs. 2, on Second Future. 

Obs. 6. The y seems to have been considered by the 
Greeks as inconsistent with the short penultima ; hence it is 
changed into 7, as in ψύχω, ψύξω, (ψυγῶ) ἔψυγον. 


The Second Future 


is formed from the Second Aorist, by dropping 
the Augment, and changing ον into  circumflex- 
ed; as ἔτυπον, τυπῶ. 


Obs. 1. The Second Future is originally the same as the 
first. Thus, τύπτω made tunéow, rejecting the δ, τύπσω, i. e. 
τύψω. The old form τυπέσω, became, in the Ionic dialect, τυ- 
πέω, and in the Attic, tum. So also λεγέσω, λέγσω, λέξω ; 1ο- 
nic deyéw; Attic λεγῶ. Verbs in dow, ww, vw, ow, have only 
one form of a future, which ought not to be termed their se- 
cond future, but simply their future ; thus, ψαλέσω, ψαλέω, ψα- 
4@. Hence in reality a second Future does not exist. 

Obs. 2. From the preceding observation of Dr. Valpey, 
which is supported by the authority of the best Grammarians, 
it will be seen at once, that the mode of forming the second 
future from the second aorist, is decidedly erroneous. The 
latter, in truth, is derived from the former; and, as the second 
future is, in fact, only an Attic form of the original future, so 
the second aorist is nothing more than an aorist derived from 
this Attic form, and in its meaning differing in no respect 
from the first aorist. υἱά. Observations on the Tenses. 


Attic Future. 


What is called the Attic Future may here be noticed. ‘The 
form is, indeed, used by the Ionians sometimes, but the At- 
tics are especially remarkable for its use, and hence the name 
it has received. ‘This consists in throwing out σ, in dow, ἔσω, 
low, όσω, of the future, and_in making the vowels, which there- 
by meet together, coalesce ; thus, ἐξελῶ for ἐξελάσω, 246 for 
ἐλάσω, διασκεδῶ for διασκεδάσω, καλῶ for καλέσω, μαχεῖσθαι for 
μαχέσεσθαι: κομιῶ for κομέσω ; κομιῦυμεθα for κομισόμεθα, ἀνο- 
ὑκτιῷ for ἀνοικτίσω ; ὀμῦυμαι for ὀμόσομαν ; ἐλευθεροῦσι for ἐλευ- 
θερώσουσι, &c. It extends to the moods and participles of 
the future, and to the middle voice. 


109 
PASSIVE VOICE. 


The Moods and Tenses. 
Indic. Imper. Opt. Subj. Infin. Part. 


Present. {τύπτομαι tint-ov |-oluny La αν <0 Out! busy 
Imperf. ἰἐτυπτόμην aieisga a : ol gets 
oe Phnom : ye by fti% -μμένος -φθαν -μμένος 
uperf. jérerdupny ~éinv -0 

P. p. Fut. ᾿τετύψ-ομαι -oluny -Ἔσθαι -όμενος 
Ist. Aor. [ἐτύφθην τὐφθ-ητι]-δίην -ὦ [-ἦναι |-εἰς 
Ist. Fut. Ἰτυφθήσ-ομαν -oluny -δσθαι-ὄμενος 
2d. Aor. [ἐτύπην τύπ-ηθι |-elynv -@ |-ῆναν -εὶς 
2d. Fut. |τυπήσ-ομαν -oluny -εσθαι-όμενος. 


Numbers and Persons. 
- INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present, 1 am struck. 


S. τύπτομαι, TUNTY, TUMTETHE, 
D. τυπτόμεθον, τυπτεσθον, τυπτεσθον, 
P. τυπτόμεθα, τυπτεσῦε, τυπτονται 


Imperfect, I was in the situation, or custom, of being 


struck, 
S. ἐτυπτόμην, éruntov, ἐτυπτδτο, 
D. ἐτυπτόμεθον, ἐτυπτεσθον, ἐτυπτέσθην, 
P. ἐτυπτόμεθα, ἐτυπτεσθε, ἐτυπτοντο. 


Perfect, I have been siruck. 


S. τέτυμμαι, τέτυψαι, τέτυπται, 

D. τετύμμεθον, τέτυφθον, τέτυφθον, 

P. τετύμμεθα, τέτυφθε, τετυμμένοι εἰσέ. 
Pluperfect, I had been struck. 

S. ἐτετύμμην, ἐτέτυψο, ἐτέτυπτο, 

D. ἐτετύμμεθον, ἐτέτυφθον, ἐτέτυφθην, 

Ῥ, ἐτετύμμεθα, ᾿ ἐτέτυφθε, τετυμμένον ἦσαν 

Paulo-post-Futurum, I am on the point of bemg 

struck. : 
S. τετύψομαι, τετυψή, τετυψεδται, 
D. τετυψόμεθον, τετυψεσθον, τοτυψεσθον, 


P. τετυψόμξδθα, τοτυψεσθε, TETUWOYTAS, 


ἂν 


110 


First Aorist, J was struck. 


S. ἐτύφθην, ἐτυφθης, ἐτυφθη, 
Ὁ. ἐτυφθητον, ἐτυφθήτην, 
P. ἐτύφθημεν, ἐτυφθητε, ἐτύφθησαν. 
First Future, I shall be struck. 
S. τυφθήσομαι, τυφθήση, τυφθήσεται, 
D. τυφθησόμεθον, τυφθήσεσθον, τυφθήσεσθον, 
P. τυφθησόμεθα, τυφθήσεσθε, τυφθήσονται 
Second Aorist, I was struck. 
S. ἐτύπην, érunns, ἐτυπη, 
D. ἐτυπητον, ἐτυπήτην, 
P ἐτύπημεν, ἐτυπητξδ, ἐτυπῆσαν. 
Second Future, I shall be struck. 
S. τυπήσομαι, τυπήση, τυπήσεδται, 
D. τυπησόμεθον, τυπήσεσθον, τυπήσεσθον, » 
P. τυπησόμεθα, τυπήσεσθε, τυπήσονται. 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present, be struck. 


Ss. τύπτου, τυπτέσθω, 
D. τύπτεσθον, τυπτέσθων 
Ῥ. τύπτεσθε, τυπτέσθωσαν. 
Perfect, have been struck. ϑ 
S. τέτυψο, τετύφθω, 
D τέτυφθον, τετύφθων, 
x τέτυφθε, τετύφθωσαν. 
First Aorist, be struck. 
S. τύφθητι, τυφθήτω, 
D. τύφθητον, τυφθήτων, 
x3 tig byte, τυφθήτωσαν. 
9 
Second Aorist, be struck. 
Ss. tin Ot, τυπήτω, 
D τύπητον, τυπήτων, 
P. τύπητε, τυπήτωσα». 


111 


OPTATIVE MOOD. Ὗ 
Present, I might be struck, Ο, 
᾿ δῶν 


᾿ Ἂς τ ; 
S. τυπτοίμην, τύπτοιο, τυπτοιυτὸ;- oy, ὦ 
D. τυπτοίμεθον, τυπτοισθον, τυπτοίσθην, ἐᾷ 
P. τυπτοίμεθα, τυπτοισθε, τυπτουντο. Se 


Perfect, I might have been struck. 


S. τετυμμένος δἴην, 87S, evn, 
D. τετυμμένω, Euntov, διήτην, 
P. τετυμμένου δἴημεν,  sinte, δἴησαν». 


Paulo-post-Futurum, I might be on the point of 
being struck. 


S. τετυψοίμην, TETUWOL0, TETUWOLTO, 
D. τετυψοέίμεθον, τετυψοισθο», tetvpolabny, 
P. τετυψοίμεθα, τετυψοισθε, τετυψοιντο. 


First Aorist, 1 mght have been struck. 


S. τυφθείην τυφθείης, τυφθείη, 

D τυφθειητον, τυφθειητην, 

P. τυφθείημεν, τυφθείητε, τυφθείησαν. 
First Future, 1] might be struck hereafter. 

S. τυφθησοίμην, τυφθήσοιο, τυφθήσοιτο, 

D. τυφθησοίμεθον, τυφθήσοισθον, τυφθησοίσθην, 

Ρ. τυφθησοίμεθα, τυφθήσοισθε, τυφθήσοιντο. 
Second Aorist, 1 might have been struck. 

S. τυπείην, tumelngc, τυπείη, 

D. τυπείητον, τυπείητην, 

P. τυπείημεν, tumelnte, ς΄ τυπείησαν. 

Second Future, I might be struck hereafter. 

S. τυπησοίμην, τυπήσοιο, τυπήσοιτο, 

D. τυπησοίμεθον, τυπήσοισθον, τυπησοίσθην, 

P. τυπησοίμεθα, τυπήσοισθε, τυπήσουντο. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. | 
Present, 7 may be struck. 


S. tintopac, τύπτῃ, τυπτήται, 
D. τυπτώμεθον, τυπτησθον, τυπτησθον, 


P. τυπτώμεθα, τυπτησθῦε, τυπτωνταιν, 


112 


Perfect, 1 may have been struck. 


S. τετυμμένος ὦ, ἧς, i 
D. τετυμμένω, τον, ἦτον, 
P. τετυμμένοιν ὥμεν, ἦτε, ὦσι. 


First Aorist, I may have been struck. 


S. τυφθῶ, " τυφθῆς, τυφθῆ, 
D. τυφθῆτον, τυφθῆτον, 
P. τυφθῶμεν, τυφθῆτε, τυφθῶσι. 


Second Aorist, J may have been struck. 


S. τυπῶ, TURNS, τυπῆ, 
Ὦ. τυπῆτον, τυπῆτον, 
ῬΡ. τυπῶμεν, τυπῆτεδ, τυπῶσι. 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 


Present, τύπτεσθαι, to be struck. 

Perfect, τέτυφδαι, to have been struck. 

P, p. Futurum, τέτυψεσθαι, to be on the point of 
being struck. 

First Aorist, tupéjyat, to have been struck. 

First Future, cugéijoeodat, to be going to be siruck. 

Second Aorist, τυπῆναι, to have been struck. 

Second Fut. τυπήσεσθαι, to be going to be struck. 


PARTICIPLES. 
Present, being struck. 
N. τυπτόμενος, τυπτομένη, TUNTOMEVOY, 
G. τυπτομένου, τυπτομένης, tumtouévou, ὅτο. 


Perfect, having been struck. 
N. τετυμμένοξ, τετυμμένη, τετυμμένον, 
6. τετυμμένου, τετυμμένης, τετυμμένου. 
Paulo-post-Futurum, being on the point of being 
: struck. 


N. τετυψόμενος, τετυψομένη, τετυψόμενον, 
6. τετυψομένου, τετυψομένης, τετυψομένου. 


113 
First Aorist, having been struck. 


Ν. τυφθεὶς, τυφθεῖσα, τυφθὲν, 
6. τυφθέντος, τυφθείσης, τυφθέντος. 
First Future, going to be struck, 

N. τυφθησόμενος, στύὐφθησομένη, τυφθησόμενον, 

6. τυφθησομένου, τυφθησομένης, τυφθησομένου. 
Second Aorist, having been struck. 

N. τυπεὶς, tumsioa, τυπὲν, 

G. τυπέντος, ᾿ τυπείσης, τυπέντος. 
Second Future, going to be struck. 

N. τυπησόμενος, τυπησομένη, τυπησομένον, 

G. τυπησομένου, τυπησομένης, τυπησομένγου,ς 


FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 
The Present 


is formed from the Present Active, by changing 
w into ομᾶν, as τύπτ-ω, τὐπτ-ομαι. 


The Imperfect 


is formed from the Imperfect Active, by changing 
y into μην, as ἔτυπτο-ν, ἐτυπτό-μην. 


The Perfect 


is formed from the Perfect Active, by changing, 
in the 
Ist. Cong. ga pure into μμαι, as τέτυ-φα, τέτυ- 
μμαι; | 
qo impure into wou, as τέτερ-φα, τέτερ-μαι 5 
In the 2nd. χα into yar, as λέλε-χα, λέλε-γμαι ; 
In the 3d. χα into σμαι, as πέφρα-χα, πεφρα- 
σμαι ; 
In the 4th. κα into wor, as ἔψαλ-κα; ἔψαλ-μαι. 
Verbs of the Third Conjugation in ὦ pure, if 
. 11 


114 


the penultima of the Perfect be long, change xa 
IntO Mal, aS πεφίλη-κα, πεφίλη-μαι. 


Obs. 1. The following, however, are excepted from this 
rule and retain σ, ἀκούω, ἤκουσμαι; θραύω, τέθραυσμαι; κελεύω, 
κδκέλευσμαν; κλείω, κέκλεισμαι ; κρούω, κέκρουσμαι ; παίω, πέ- 
παισμαν; πταίω, ἔπταισμαν ; σείω, σέσδισμαι. 

Obs. 2. Some have a peculiar usage, and change xa into 
pov, as ἀρόω, ἤρομαι ; ἐλάω, ἤλαμαι, and by reduplication ἐλήλα- 
μαι; δέω, δέδεμαι;; θύω, τέθυμαι ; λύω, λέλυμαι. 

Obs. 3. The perfect of most verbs in ow, αὐγω, ave, διω, 
δυω, 0W, ovw, vw, Originally ended in war, which was afterwards 
changed to guar; hence we find γνωτὸς and γγωστὸς, &c. 


Some Verbs shorten the long syllable of the 
Perfect Active, as ἔδωκα, δέδομαι. 


Obs. On the same principle, ev is changed into v; thus, 
κέχευκα, κέχυσμαν and κέχυμαι; πέφευχα, πέφυγμαι; σέσευκα, 
σέσυμαι ; τέτευχα, τέτυγμαι. 


Dissyllables,whose first syllable hastgz, change 
ε into a: as τρέπω, TeTQEpa, τετραμμαι: but they 
resume it in the First Aorist, ergepény. 


Synopsis of the formation of the Perf. Pass. in all its 
Persons. 


I. S. τδτυμμαι, τέτυψαι, τέτυπται, 
(for τέτυφμαι, τέτυφσαι, τέτυφται,) 
D. τετύμμεθον, τέτυφθον, τέτυφθον, 
P. τετύμμεθα, τότυφθε, τετυμμένον εἰσί. 
II. S. λέλεγμαιυ, λέλδξαι, λέλεκται, 
(for λόλεχμαι, λέλεχσαι, λέλεχται,) 
D, λελέγμεθον, λέλεχθον, λέλεχθον, 
Ῥ, λελέγμεθα, λέλεχθε, λελεγμένον εἴσί. 
ΠῚ. 5. πέπεισμαι, πέπεισαι, πέπεισται, 
(for πέπεισσαν,) 
D. πεπείσμεθον, πέπεισθον, πέπεισθον, 
Ῥ. πεπείσμεθα, πέπεισθε, ποπδισμένον εἰσί. 
IV. 5. ier ae πέφανσαι, πέφανται, 
or πέφανμαιν 
D. πεφάμμεθον ΐ πέφανθον, πέφανθον, 


Ῥ, πεφάμμεθα, πέφανθε, πεφαμμένον δυσι. 


115 


The third person plural is formed from the third person 
singular by inserting » before tos, as κέκριται, κέκρινται, pro- 
bably from the old form, κέκρυνκανταν But when a consonant 
comes before tov, the insertion of » would produce an inh 
monious sound. Hence a periphrasis is formed by the addi- 
tion of the verb eiué to the Perfect Participle: thus τετυμμένου 
siol for τέτυπνται. 

The 2d. Person Imperative is formed by changing αὐ of the 
2d. Person Indic. into 0; as τέτυψ-αι, τέτυψ-ο ; the 3d. Person 
is formed by changing « of the 2d. Pers. Pl. Indic. into ὦ; as 
τέτυφθ-ε, τετύφθ-ω. τ : 

The Infinitive is formed by changing ε of the 2d. Person 
Plural Indicative into αὐ, as tetug6-s, τετυφθ-αι. 

When the Perfect Indicative ends in “as pure, the peri- 
phrasis of the Participle with siut does not take place in the 
Optative, and sometimes not in the Subjunctive ; but wes in the 
Optative is changed into μην, αμαν into ouyy; and, in the 
Subjunctive, woe with the preceding vowel into wuar; as In- 
dic. τετίμημαι, Opt. τετιμήμην, Subj. τοτειμῶμαι. 


The Pluperfect 


is formed from the Perfect by changing μαι into 
μην, and prefixing e to the Continued Augment, 
if there is a Reduplication, as τέτυμ-μαι, ἐτετύμ- 
ΜῊΝ 2 
The Paulo-post-Futurum 


is formed from the second person singular of 
the Perfect, by changing ou into owas, as τέτυψ-αι, 
τέτυψ-ομαι. 


Obs. 1. By some, this tense is formed from the First Fu- 
ture Middle by prefixing the continued Augment, as τύψομαι, 
tétupouat, Its true formation, however, is from the perfect, 
as will be shown in the explanation of the force of the several 
tenses. 

Obs. 2. No verbs of the Fourth Conjugation, or with the 
Temporal Augment, have this tense. 

Obs. 3. By the Grammarians of the present day, this tense 
is generally styled the Third Future Passive. 


The First Aorist 
is formed from the Third Person Singular of the 


116 


Perfect, by dropping the Reduplication, chang- 
ing ται into θην, and the preceding soft into an 
aspirate mute, as τέτυτσι-ται, ἐτύφ-θην. 

Four verbs assume 0; ἔῤῥωται, ἐῤῥώσθην ; μέμ- 
νήται; ἐμνήσθην ; κέχρηται, ἐχρήσθη» ; πέπληται, 
ἐπλήσθην. But-oéowora: drops it, as ἐσώθην. 

In some verbs. the Penultima is shortened : 
thus, @ apnonta: makes ἀφηρέθην ; εὕρηται: εὑρέθην ; 
ἐπήνηται, ἐπηνέθην ; τέθειται, ἐτέθην 


Obs. In the third person plural of the Aorists, ἃ syncope 
often takes place ; thus, ἤγερθην for ἠγέρθησαν ; ἐκόσμηθεν for 
ἐκοσμήθησαν. 


The First Future 


is formed from the First Aorist, by dropping the 
Augment and changing ν into dower, as ἐτύφθη-ν, 
τυφϑθή-σομαι. 


The Second Aorist 


is formed from the Second Aorist Active, by 
changing ον into*ny, as ἔτυπ-ον, ἐτύπ-ην. 


Obs. 1. No second Aorist passive occurs in δην, θην, την, 
or from verbs in pure, except ἐκάην, ἐδάην, ἐῤῥύην, ἐφύην. 

Obs. 2. The Tragic Poets preferred the Passive forms of 
the first aorist; the writers of the new comedy were more 
attached to the smoother forms of the second aorist. 


The Second Future 


is formed from the Second Aorist, by dropping 
the Augment, and changing y into oouat, as ἐτύ- 
πη-ν, τυπή-σομαι. 


An a 


Present. 


Imperf. 
Perfect. 


Pluperf. 
Ist. Aor. 
Ist. Fut. 


2d. Aor. 
2d. Fut. 


Indic. 
τύπτ-ομαι 
étuntéuny 
τέτυπ-α 
ἐτδτύπευν 
ἐτυψάμην 
τύψ-ομαν 
ἐτυπόμην 
τυπ-οῦμανυ 


; 
; 


117 


MIDDLE VOICE. 
The Moods and Tenses. 


Imper. 


-0U 


τύψ-αν 


τυτπί-οῦ 


Opt. 
-olunyv 
τουμυ 


-αἰμὴην 
-οἰμὴν 
-οὐμὴν 
«οὐμὴν 


Subj. 


-ῶμαν 


-W 


-ὧμαν 


-ὧμαν 


Infin. 


-δσθαι 


-«ἐναν 


κ«ασθαν 
-Ἔσθαν 
-ἐσθαν 


Part. 
-6usvos 


-ὡς 


-άμενος 
-ὀμενος 
«ὀμενος 


-«δεἴσθαι 


Numbers and Persons. 


The only Tenses differing from the Active and 
Passive forms of verbs in w, are the First Aorists 
Indicative, Imperative, and Optative, pa Second 
Future Indicative. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 
First Aorist, I struck myself. 
ἐτυψω, 


S. ἐτυψάμην, 
D. ἐτυψάμεθον, 
P. ἐτυψάμεθα, 


Second Future, I shall strike myself. 


TUMELTAL, 


S. τυποῦμαν, 
D. τυπούμεθον, 
P. τυπούμεθα, 


voy 


S. τυψαίμην, 
D, τυψαέμεθον 
P rupaiusba, 


ἐτυψασθον, 


ἐτυψασθε, 


τυπῆ, 


τυπεῖσθον, 


tunsiods, 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


First Aorist, strike thyself. 
τυψάσθω, 


τυψαου, 


τυψασθον, 


τυψασθε, 
OPTATIVE MOOD. 
First Aorist, J might have been struck. 


τυψαιο, 
tupatoGor, 
τυψαιοθε, 
11" 


ἐτυψατο, 
ἐτυψάσθην, 
ἐτυψαντο. 


τυπεῖσθον, 
τυτιοῦνται. 


τυψάσθων, 
τυψάσθωσαν. 


τυψαυτο, 


τυψαέσθην, 


TUWOLYTO 


-ούμεγος. 


118 


Formation of the Tenses. 


The Present and Imperfect 
are the same as those of the Passive Voice. 


The Perfect 


is formed from the Second Aorist, by prefixing 
the Reduplication and changing oy into a, as 
ἔτυπ-ον, τέτυπ-α. 


Obs. Hence Verbs which want the Second Aorist Active, 
strictly speaking, have no Perfect Middle. 


In Dissyllables, if the Second Aorist has @ in 
the penultima, from a Present ine or εἰ the Per- 
fect Middle changes it into 0; as πλέχω, ἔπλακον, 
πέπλοχα ; σπείρω, ἔσπαρον, ἔσπορα. But if the 
present be in ἢ or ot, or have its penult long by 
position, then the Perfect Middle changes α, in 
the penultima of the Second Aorist, into ἢ; as 
λήθω, ἔλαθον, λέληθα ; φαίνω, ἔφανον, πέφηγα ; 
θαλλω, ἔϑαλον, τέδθηλα ; κλάζω, ἔκλαγον, κέκληγα. 


Except κράζω, ἔκραγον, κέκραγα ; πράσσω, ἔπραγον, πεπρᾶγα: 
φράζω, ἔφραδον, πεφρᾶδα. 


If the Second Aorist has ε in the penultima, 
the Perfect Middle changes it into 0; as ἔλεγον, 
λέλογα. 

If the Second Aorist has z in the penultima, 
from a Present in ev, the Perfect Middle changes 
it into ov; as εἴδω, Wor, οἶδα ; πείθω, ἔπιθον, πέ- 
ποιθα. 


Obs. 1. The verb εἴκω, makes %ouxe ; instead of which a 


more Attic form was δἶκα. 
Obs.2. deidw makes δέδοικα, to avoid the frequent repetition 


of ὃ in the regular δέδοιδα For the form δέδια, see irregular 


119 


verbs. A similar change occurs in πέπομφα, where the regu- 
lar form is πέπομπα. Some Grammarians, however, consider 
δέδοικα to be for δέδεικα. 


If ω be already in the Present, it is merely made 
long; as τρίζω, ἐτρἴγον, τετρῖγα ; φρίσσω, epQlxor, 
TLEPOUNO. 


Observations on the Perfect Middle. 


Obs. 1. Some verbs retain the diphthong of the Present, 
thus xsi6w makes κέκδυθα and κέκυθα ; φεύγω, πέφευγα and πέ- 
φυγα. Itis more correct, however, to consider πέφευγα as the 
perfect active, changed, on account of the number of aspirates, 
from πέφευχα, and to regard πέφυγα as the true perfect middle. 

Obs. 2. After the Attic Reduplication the vowel is short- 
ened, as ἀκούω, ἀκήκοα ; ἐλεύθω, ἐλήλυθα. 

Obs. 3. The Poets frequently make the penultima short, 
particularly in the feminine of the participle, because the pro- 
per form would be inadmissible in verse ; as μεμακυῖαι, ΤῈ ἃ; 
435. from μεμηκώς ; τεθαλυῖα. Il. 1, 208, &c. from τεθηλώς ; 
λελακυῖα, Od. μ', 85. from λεληκώς, &c. 

Obs. 4. The verb ῥήσσω makes ἔῤῥωγα ; ἔλπω, ἔολπα ; ἔργω, 
ἔοργα ; ἔθω, εἴωθα. In εἴωθα, the characteristic o in the perfect 
middle is changed into ὦ, perhaps for the sake of euphony, or 
in order to give a tense which has the signification of the 
present, the sense of duration by means of the form itself, 
namely, ἔωθα, as the Ionians and Dorians wrote it, lengthened 
into εἴωθα. 

Obs. 5. We call the Perfect Middle in this work by its old 
name, and have not adopted the new appellation, of 2d Per- 
fect active, which the Grammarians of late have seen fit to 
bestow upon it. The reasons for retaining the former name, 
will be found at the beginning of the verb, in the Observations 
on the Middle Voice. 


The Pluperfect 
is formed from the Perfect, by prefixing « and 


changing ἃ into ev, as τέτυπ-α, ἐτετύπ-ειν. 
The First Aorist 


is formed from the First Aorist Active, by adding 
μην, aS ἔτυψα, ἐτυψάμην. 


SF ἂν ye EN eee een a Cd stn eens eat: 


120 


The First Future 


is formed from the First Future Active, by chang- 
ing ὦ into owe, as τύψ-ω, τὐψ-ομαι. 
Obs. In the Fourth Conjugation 6 is changed into οὔμαν, as 


ψαλῶ, ψαλοῦμαι, having the circumflex accent. This form 
comes from the old ψαλέσομαν, Ionic ψαλέομαι, Attic ψαλοῦμαι. 


The Second Aorist 


is formed from the Second Aorist Active, by 
changing ν into μην, as ἔτυπο-ν, ἐσυπό-μην. 


The Second Future 


is formed from the Second Future Active, by 
changing ὦ into οὗμαι, as τυπ-ῶ, τυπ-οῦμαι. 


Obs. The Attics said ἔδομαι, πίομαι; instead of ἐδοῦμαν 
from ἔδω, J eat, and πιοῦμαν from πένω, I drink. But these are 
more probably present tenses which were used in a future 
sense, like εἶμι, I go, (um going), since the first syllable of 
πίομαι 15 usually long. Under this head may also be reckoned 
φάγομαι, used by later writers. 


General Observations on the Three Voices. 
ACTIV EVOL £: 


INDICATIVE. 


Obs. 1. The third person plural of the Present, Future, and 
Perfect, of the Indicative Active, instead of ov or ov, has in 
the Doric dialect vz. ‘This appears also to have been the 
primitive form, and the τ afterwards to have been changed into 
o. Hence we have, by the rules of euphony, the long vowel 
or diphthong before ov in the common form ; thus, 


Prest. τύπτοντι, τύπτονσι, τύπτουσι. 

Fut. τύψοντι, τύψονσι, τύψουσι. 
Ud ΄ , 

Perf. τετύφαντι, τετύφανσι, τετύὐφᾶσι. 


The same remark will apply to the future form in 6, and the 
tenses of the Subjunctive ; thus, 


Fut. μενέω, μενῶ, μενέοντι, Usvéovor, μεγέουσι, μενοῦσυ. 
Subj. τύπτωντι, τύπτωνσι, τύπτωσι. 


121 


Obs. 2. From Obs. 1. the student will perceive the analogy 
between the third person plural in ον of the imperfect and se- 
cond aorist, and that in ovt: of the present and future, and also 
between the termination in αν of the third person plural of the 
first aorist and that in «vt of the perfect. 

Obs. 3. The first person plural in wey is converted in the 
Doric dialect into mes, as τύπτομες, λέγομες, εὔδομες, ἐτυψάμες. 

Obs. 4. The second person in ¢ was often lengthened in 
the old language by the addition of the syllable θὰ, which has 
remained in the Molic, Doric, Ionic, and, in some words, in 
the Attic dialect ; thus, ἐθέλησθα, εἴπησθα, κλαίοισθα. In Attic 
there particularly occur ἦσθα for is; from εἰμί; ἔφησθα for 
ἔφης, from φημί; and especially οἶσθα ; instead of which the 
proper form οἷδας is very rarely found in the Attic writers. 

Obs. 5. The termination ov of the third person plural im- 
perfect and second aorist, was in some of the common dialects 
οσαν, and remained also in the Alexandrian dialect, (as ἐσχά- 
ζοσαν, Lycophr. 21.) particularly in the Greek Old Testament, 
or Septuagint, and in the New Testament. Thus we have, 
in these last, such forms as ἐφάγοσαν, ἀπήλθοσαν, παρήλθοσαν, 
ἐλάβοσαν, ἴδοσαν ; for ἔφαγον, ἀπῆλθον, παρῆλθον, ἔλαβον͵ ἴδον, &c. 

Obs. 6. Instead of the termination svoay in the third person 
plural of the pluperfect, the form σὰν is more common in 
Ionic and Attic ; as ἀκηκόεσαν, ἐγεγόνεσαν, ἐπεπλεύκεσαν. 


IMPERATIVE. 


Obs. In the third person plural of the Imperative, in Ionic 
and Attic, the termination ὄντων is more usual than ἐτωσαν, as 
πασχόντων for πασχέτωσαν, λεγόντων for λεγέτωσαν. The same 
form was also used by the Dorians. Some Doric writers omit 
the » in this form, as ποιούντω, ἀποστειλάντω: hence the Im- 
peratives in Latin, in the third person, amanto, docento, audi- 
unto, ἄτα. 


OPTATIVE. 


Obs. 1. Instead of the Optative in ous, there was also a 
form olny, οίης, oln, plural oljuer, ointe, οἶησαν, contracted, in 
verbs in aw, into ony, dys, 7, &c. which bears the name of 
Attic. It is found chiefly, however, in the contract verbs ; as 
φιλοίην, ποιοίην, ἐπερωτῴην, νικῴη, and hence also in the second 
future of barytons ; as φανοίην from φαίνω, fut. φαγῶ, 

Obs. 2. Instead of the form ou: in the first Aorist of the 
Optative, the Attics chiefly use the primitive Avolic form, δια, 
δίας, evs, after the example of the Ionians and Dorians, but only 


SES Fo A st OT CLT ee ey 


122 


in the second and third persons singular, and third person plu- 
ral. ‘The AXolians use it also in the first. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Obs. 1. The third person singular of the Subjunctive, in 
lonic, received the addition of the syllable ov, as ἔλθησι, λάθη- 
σι φέρησι, for ἔλθη, λάθη, φέρη. 

Obs. 2. In the old poets, the subjunctive active, if the pe- 
nultima be long, has, for the most part, in the first and second 
persons plural the short vowel instead of the long one, as θω- 
ρήξομεν, Il. β΄, 72. ἐρύξομεν, Od. ὁ, 297. ἀπολύσομεν, I]. x’, 
443, &c. The student must not mistake any of these forms for 
futures. 


INFINITIVE. 


Obs. The infinitives in δὲν and vas, in the ancient language 
and in the dialects, had a form in wey and mevor. Assuming 
the form μεναν as the primitive one, we should, according to 
analogy, proceed thus; τυπτέμεναι, by apocope, tuntéusr, by 
syncope, τυπτέεν, by contraction, τύπτειν, From τυπτέεν 
comes also by contraction the Doric titer. 


PASSIVE VOICE. 


Obs. 1. The original termination of the second person sin- 
gular of the Passive Voice was eco: in the Present, Futures, 
and Perfect of the Indicative ; soo in the Imperfect and Plu- 
perfect of the Indicative and Present of the Imperative; and 
yoga in the Present of the Subjunctive. ‘The lonians dropped 
the o, and accordingly converted saa: into so, sow into 60, and 
youu into yas; and the common dialect again contracted these 
forms into ἢ and ov, as follows: 


Ion. Com 

Present Ind. τύπτεσαν, τύπτεαι, τύπτῃ. 
Subj. τύπτησαι, τύπτηαι, τὐπτη. 
Imperf. Ind. ἐτυπτέσο, étumtéo, ἐτύπτου 
Imp. τυπτέσω, τυπτέο, τύπτου. 


To these may be added the corresponding parts of the Mid- 
dle Voice ; and also the first aorist, as ἐτυψάσο, ἐτυψάο, ἐτύψω. 
In the Optative, likewise, the same old form prevailed; thus 
from οὖσι was formed ovo, which, as it does not admit of con 
traction, remained the common for. 


= ὙΎΡ 


123 


Obs. 2. The primitive terminations in ὅσαι, evo, &c. very 
probably continued in use in the less polished dialects as fa- 
miliar colloquial forms. In the written language, however, 
they were retained only in the following cases: 1. In such 
irregular futures as ἔδομαι, πίομαι, φάγομαι, &c, thus ἐδέσαι; 
πίεσαι, φάγεσαι. 2. In some of the contracted verbs ; as ἀκρο- 
άομαι, ἀκροάεσαι, contracted ἀκροᾶσαι ; ὀδυνάομαι, ὀδυναέσαι, 
contracted ὀδυνᾶσαν;; καυχάομαν, καυχαέσαε, contracted καυχᾶ- 
σαι, &c. Many of these forms occur in the New Testament. 
3. In the passive and middle voices of verbs in μὲ; as, ἵστα- 
μαι, ἵστασαι; ἵσταμην, ἵστάσο, &c. though these verbs some- 
times follow the forms in y. 4. In the perfect and pluperfect 
passive of all verbs, with the loss, however, of ¢; as τέτυψαν 
for τετυπέσαι;; ἐτέτυψο for étetuméco. 

Obs. 3. The Attic form δὲ for the second person is retain- 
ed, in modern editions of ancient authors, only in the verbs 
βούλομαι, οἴομαι, and the future of ὄπτομαι, as, βούλει, οἴει, ὄψει. 
This renders it easy to distinguish these from the Subjunctive 
forms, βούλῃ, οἴη. An examination, however, of ancient manu- 
scripts, renders it very certain, that, by Thucydides, Plato, 
and the Dramatic writers, the form «+ was constantly used in 
all verbs. 


INDICATIVE. 


Obs. 1. In the first person dual and plural, the Dorians and 
the poets interpose a σ ; as τυπτόμεσθον, τυπτόμεσθα. 

Obs. 2. In the third person plural of the perfect and pluper- 
fect, the Ionians and Dorians change the » before τὰν and to 
into & This is likewise done in the third person plural of 
the Optative. The following rules, in general, regulate this 
change. ve 

1. If the third person singular of the perfect and pluper- 
fect end in ται or to pure, then, in the third person plural, the 
syllable preceding the inserted α is made. short, as ξᾶταν for 
Avro; πεφιλέἄταν for πεφίληνται ; ἕατο for ἧντο ; meqrddizo for 
πεφίληντο, 

2. If tot be impure, then the preceding lenis becomes an 
aspirate, and if there be a σ, it is changed into 0 or θ᾽; as τέ- 
τυφαται for τατυμμένου εἰσί; λέλεχαται for λελεγμένοι siol; πέπλη- 
Gatos for πεπλησμένον siol; ἐτετάχατο for τεταγμένοι ἦσαν. 

3. But the Optative retains its diphthong before a, as γϑβρου- 
ἅτο for γένοιντο: τὐπτοιᾶτο for τύπτοιντο. 

Obs. 3. In like manner » is sometimes omitted in the third 
person plural of the present and imperfect indicative passive 


124 


and middle, and also in that of the present and aorists of the 
Optative. 


IMPERATIVE. 


Obs. Instead of the termination ὡσὰν in the third person 
plural of the imperative, the form wy is very much used in 
Tonic, Doric, and particularly Attic ; as ἑπέσθων for ἑπέοθωσαν ; 
κτευνέσθων for κτεινέσθωσαν, Sc. 

* 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Obs. The perfect of the Subjunctive, when the perfect In- 
dicative ends in uae pure, as μεμνῶμαι, πεφιλῶμαι, is said sel- 
dom to occur, and the circumlocution to be more common, as 
πεφιλημένος ὦ, Sc. 


OPTATIVE. 


Obs. In the Optative aorists, the Attics commonly have in 
the plural the form εἶμδν, sits, eter. The prose writers in the 
same dialect always have «tev in the third person plural. This 
form is used also by Homer, as περιηθεῖμεν, Od. π', 305. δια- 
κριγθεῖτεα, Il. γ΄, 192, &e. 


INFINITIVE. 


Obs. The infinitive of the aorist has, in Doric, the termina- 
tion ἥμεν for ἤναι, as λασθῆμεν for λασθῆναν ; διακριθῆμεν for 
διακριθῆναι; ἀποτραπῆμεν for ἀποτραπῆναι; and sometimes also 
Yusvar, as φανήμεναν for φανῆναι ; ἀριθμηθήμεναν for ἀριθμηθῆ- 
vor; ἀναθήμεναι for ἀναθῆναι. 


DEPONENT VERBS. 


The Deponent Verbs are to be distinguished from the Mid- 
dle, since they have the form of Passives, but the sense of 
Actives, as, αἰσθάνομαι, δέχομαι, γίνομαι, δέομαν, δύναμαι, &e. 

Some of these, in the Perfect and Aorist, have the form of 
the Passive, others of the Middle; in others, one of the tenses 
has the Passive, the other the Middle form, as αἰσθάνομαι, 
ἤσθημαι, ἠσθόμην ; δέχομαι, δέδεγμαι, ἐδεξάμην ; γίνομαι, γεγέ- 
γημαν and γέγονα, ἐγενόμην ; ἐργάζομαι, εἴργασμαι, εἰργασάμην ; 
ἔρχομαι ἦλθον, ἐλήλυθα, ἡγέομαι, ἥγημαι, ἡγησαμην ; μαένομαι, 
μέμηνα, ἐμάνην ; μάχομαι, μεμάχημαι, ἐμαχεσάμην. A deponent 
of this kind seldom has ἃ perfect of the active form, as οἴχομαι, 
οἴχωκα. 


125 
The following is a Synopsis of their form: 


Indic. Imper. Opt. Subj. Infin. Part. 


Present. |déyouae ἷ j 

Imperf. ἡϑαχόμον ὲ δέχεου |-oluny ᾿τ-ωμαν |-δσθαιΐ-ομδνος 
Perfect. [δέδεγμαν -γμένος -γμένος! ὦ 

Pluperf. |ἐδεδέγμην ὲ δέδε- δ εἴην ὦ Γζθαν [-γμενος 
P. p. Fut. ᾿δεδέξ-ομαν -olunv -εσθαιΐ-ομενος 
1 Aor. Μ. ἐδεξάμην δέξ-αν. |-αἰμὴην [ωμαν |-ασθαιΐ-αμενος 
1 Fat. Μ. |δέξ-ομαι -olunv ~80O01|-ousvos 


A few of these Verbs have a Second Aorist Middle; as 
πυνθάνομαι, ἐπυθόμην. 

Perhaps it would be more analogical to consider them as 
Defective Verbs, whose Active is Obsolete, and which want 
some of the Passive and Middle Tenses. 


Contracted Verbs. | 


Verbs in aw, ew, and ow, are contracted in the 
Present and Imperfect Tenses. 

Verbs in ew contract aw, ao, and gov into ὦ, as 
τιμάω, τιμῶ, to honour; τιμάομεν, τιμῶμεν ; τιμ- 
άουσι, τιμῶσι :—else into a, ἃ5 τίμαε, τίμα :---τὸ 15 
subscribed, as τιμάοιμι, τιμῷμι ; τιμάεις, τιμᾷς ; 
&c. 

Verbs in ew contract ee into εἴ, and «eo into οὔ, 
as φίλεε, φίλει ; φιλέομεν, φιλοῦμεν ;—else they 
drop ε, as φιλέω, φιλῶ, to love; φιλέεις, φιλεῖς. 

Verbs in ow contract o before a long vowel 
into @, as yovodw, χρυσῶ, to gild ;—before a short 
vowel or ov, into ov, as χρυσόετε, χρυσοῦτε; χρυ- 
σόουσι, χρυσοῦσι :-—otherwise into οἵ, as χρυσόῃς, 
χρυσοῖς. In the Infin. oy is contracted into ovr. 


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129 


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Remarks on the Contract Verbs. 


Obs. 1. The uncontracted or original form of these verbs is, 
as far as relates to verbs in ἕω, peculiar to the Ionic dialect. 
In the other verbs it is wholly disused, with the exception of 
a few poetical forms in άω. 

Obs. 2. In verbs in éw, the AXolians pronounced separately 
the « subscribed in the second and third persons singular of 
the Present Indicative, as τεμάϊς for τιμᾷς ; γελάϊς for γελᾷς ; 
τιμάϊ for τιμᾷ ; γελάϊ for γελᾷ. 

Obs. 3. Verbs in éw often change α into ε in the Ionic dia- 
lect, as ὁρέω, ὁρέομεν, for ὁράω, ὁράομεν ; χρέδται for χρᾶται, ὅτο. 

Obs. 4. The Doric dialect, which elsewhere invariably 

adopts & for 7, departs from this usage in the case of Con- 
‘tract Verbs, and makes use of ἡ without the « subscribed in 
the place of all contractions in «e: and eeu, as ὁρῆν for ὁρᾷν ; 
tohunre for todugre ; xoouiy for κοσμεῖν. This species of con- 
traction finds its way also into the Attic dialect, but in general 
only in the following verbs, ζάω, zewdw, διψάω, χρῆσθαι. Thus, 
for example, ζάω, Cis, ζῆ, ζῆτε, doc. imperf. ἔζων, ἔζης, ἔζη, Ke. 
infin. ζῆν. 

Obs. 5. The Doric and Ionic dialects use for cov in the 
first person singular, and third person plural, of the imperfect, 
the form ευν. ‘The Dorians use this kind of contraction also 
in verbs in éw, which, however, were formed in éw, as ἀνγηρώ- 
τεὺν from ἀνερωτέω, just as they said ἀγαπέω for αγαπάω. 


ACTIVE VOICE. 


IMPERATIVE. 


Obs. The remark made respecting the form ovtwy for etw- 
σαν, in the third person plural of the Imperative of barytone 
verbs will apply also to contract verbs ; as xowwvotvrwy for 
xOLVWVELTOTAY, 


OPTATIVE. 


Obs. 1. The Optative in ocus, particularly in the contract 
verbs, has also in Attic the termination o/y” or ᾧην ; as φιλοίην, 
τιμῷην ; the third person plural is, as in the common form ¢:- 
doisy, τιμῷεν. The Attics, however, often use the common 
form olus, Gur, for οἰην, Oyy. 

Obs. 2. This form olny is found also in Ionic and Doric 
writers. And, as verbs in éw were, by the Ionians, conju- 
gated in ἕω, we find in their writers διαπηδοίη, ἐρωτοίη, for 


διαπηδῴη, ἐρωτῴη). 


131 


INFINITIVE. 


Obs. 1. The Doric form ἣν for ae, δεν, has been already 
noticed. The olians had a peculiar form for the Infinitive 
of contract verbs, in which form the final v was changed into 
ς, and the improper diphthongs ἡ, ¢, into the proper as, and 
also ose into ov; thus γελαῖς, πειναῖς, ὑψοῖς, ὀρθοῖς, for γελᾷν, 
πεινῆν, ὑψοῦν, ὀρθοῦν. ᾿ ; 

Obs. 2. The Dorians changed the contracted Infinitive οὖν 
into Gr, in verbs in éw; as διδῶν for διδοῦν, (1. 6. διδοναι,) ῥιγῶν 
for ῥιγοῦν, &c. 


PARTICIPLES. 


Obs. In the Participle, the Dorians said δῦσα for éovoe and 
ἄουσα. ‘The lonians used this form in verbs in ἕω, as ὑμνεῦ- 
σαν for ὑμνοῦσαι. ‘The form ao was contracted by the Dorians 
into Gas πεινᾶντι for πείναογτι. The AXolians formed the 
terminations of the Participles ending in ὧν, in εἰς, because 
they formed the verbs in éw, dw, in nus; thus, dgels, στοιχείς, 
from ὅρημι, στοίχημι. 


PASSIVE VOICE. 


Obs. 1. The Ionians and Dorians lengthen all circumflex 
terminations by the insertion of another vowel, whether the 
termination be contracted or not; thus, 1. In contracted ter- 
minations, the long vowel which arises from the contraction 
is extended by the repetition of itself, or of the short vowel ; 
as ὁράᾳς for ὁρᾶς ; δάᾳ for ἐᾷ ; ὁρόω for ὁρῶ ; βοόωσι for βοῶσι. 
2. Without the contraction, as ἐμδήη for ἐμδῇ ; φήη for φῆ. 
The Ionic prose writers only prefix an 8 to the circumflexed 
termination, as διαφυγέδιν for διαφυγεῖν. 

Obs. 2. As the Ionians form the second person of the com- 
mon conjugation in sa and 60, the verbs in δὼ are subject to a 
multiplication of vowels, as ποιέδαι, ἐπαινέξαι, &c. which, how- 
ever, in the case of éso is remedied by an elision of the 8, as 
ἐποιέο, 


VERBS IN MI. 


1. The number of Verbs in μὲ in the Attic and in the com- 
mon dialect is very small, and in these few there are only 
some which have in the greater part of their tenses a form 
peculiar to themselves, and different from the conjugation in 
o, and which accord with each other in the formation and 


132 


termination of their tenses; as τίθημι, ἵἴημι, ἵστημι, δίδωμι, 
Others again have a peculiar inflexion, in many points differ- 
ing from the conjugation of the verbs in the examples; as 
siué, I am; εἶμι, I go; and others again, as well as all verbs 
in vue, occur only in the present and imperfect, deriving the 
rest of their tenses from the radical form in va. 

2. These verbs were chiefly used in the A®olo-Doric dia- 
lect, and, in the writers of that dialect, verbs very frequently 
occur in the form μὲ, which are otherwise in éw and 40; as 
γίκημι for νικάω;:; Sonus for ὁράω;; χρήμν for χράω ; ὄνημι for 
évéw; φίλημι for φιλέω, &c. 

3. Verbs in μὲ, therefore, are properly of Aolic origin, or 
rather, they existed already in the old Greek language which 
was used by Homer and Hesiod, and in which the dialects 
were as yet mingled together. The Ionic and Attic dialects, 
which first assumed a determinate form, retained some of these 
verbs in wt. The Aolians, however, who retained the most 
of the ancient language, made the greatest use of them. 

4. Notwithstanding this antiquity, however, these verbs 
appear to have come from older forms in éw, ἕω, ow; partly 
because their futures, and sometimes also their perfects and 
aorists, are regularly derived from such verbs, and partly be- 
cause they always have a determined relation to such verbs. 


Formation of Verbs in MI. 


Verbs in μὲ are formed from Verbs of the 
Third Conjugation in άω, ἕω, dw, and tw. 


1. By prefixing the Reduplication with ἵ. 
2. By changing ὦ into mw. 
3. By lengthening the Penultima. 


Exception Ist. In prefixing the Reduplication, if the verb 
begin with an aspirated consonant, the corresponding smooth 
mute must be employed in its place. 

Exception 2nd. If the verb begins with a vowel, or with 
at, or ot, then ὁ alone is prefixed with the rough breathing: 
this is called the Improper Reduplication. 

Exception 3d. Verbs in va have no Reduplication; nor 
have those verbs in μὲ any, which are formed from trisyllables, 
as κρεμνάω, κρέμνημι; the following verb also wants the Re 
duplication, viz. φήμυ from φάω ; 


133 


Thus; from στάω is formed ἵστημι, to stand, 


from δέω τίθημι, to place, 
from δόω δίδωμι, to give, 
from δειχνύω δείκνυμι, to shew, 
from éw inut, to send, 
from πτάω ἵπτημι, to fly. 


Obs. 1. . In the formation of ἵστημι, ἵημι, and ἵπτημι, the se- 
cond Exception operates: in forming τίθημι, the first Excep- 
tion takes effect, since τίθημι is for θίθημε : in forming δίδωμι, 
the regular Rule No. 1. is applied ; and lastly, in forming 
δείκνυμι, we are governed by the third Exception. 

Obs. ὦ. The most striking difference between verbs in ws 
and verbs in ὦ, is in the Ist. and 3d. persons singular, present 
Indicative, and the 2d. person singular of the Imperative. 


Verbs in μὲ have only three Tenses of that 
form: the Present, Imperfect, and Second Aor- 
ist. They take the other Tenses generally from 
verbs in ὦ; thus δίδωμι makes δώσω, δέδωχα, 
from δόω. 

Verbs in μὲ have no 2d. Future, 2d. Aorist Pas- 
sive, nor Perfect Middle. 

Verbs in uu, besides having no Reduplication, 
want the Second Aorist, and the Optative and 
Subjunctive Moods. They borrow the two last 
from Verbs in vw. 


ACTIVE VOICE. 


The Moods and Tenses. 
Indic. Imper. Opt. Subj. Infin. Part. 


ἵστ-ημι -a0v | -alny -ὦ -ἄναν  -ἃς 
τίθ-ημι -et | -δίην «ὦ | -évav 1 -οἕὃις 

Present. δίδιωμι κοθε | -οἰην -ὦ «ὀναν | -οὺς 
δείκνουμν 1 -υθὲ εὐγαι | -d¢ 
ἵστην 


Imperf. i the rest like the Present. 


ἐδείκνυν 


134 


ἔστην στήθι | orainy| στῶ | στῆναν] στὰς 
2d. Aor. ἔθην θὲς θείην θῶ θεῖναι | θεὶς 
ἔδων δὸς δοίην δῶ δοῦναν | δὸυς 


The other Tenses are regularly formed from 
Verbs in w: thus, 


Indic. 
στήσ-ω 
θήσ-ω 
δώς-ω 
δείξ-ω 
ἔστησα 
ἔθηκα 
ἔδωκα 
ἔδειξα 
ἕστηκ-α 
τέθεικ-α 
δέδωκ-α 
δέδειχ-α 


Ist. Fut. 


Ist. Aor. 


Perf. 


Imper. Opt. 

q . . . . “Olt 

~Oue 

~Oups 

Out 

στῆσ-ον 1 -αιμι 

δεῖξ-ον | «-αὐμι 

-8 ~Ouje 

-8 Obs 

-8 -οὐμὺ 

-8 -οὐμὺ 
Plup. 


Subj. Infin. Part. 
os | eur ὧν 
-ELV Ων» 

-δὺν -wy 

eee | -δὸν ων 
“ῶ «αὐ { -ας 
ὦ | -οὖ «ας 
ὦ [-ἔναι | -ὡς 
ὦ | -ἐναν | -ὡς 
ὦ | -éyar  -ὡς 
ὦ | -ἕναν  -ὡς 


ἐστήκειν or εἱστήκειν, ἐτεθείκειν, ἐδεδώκειν, ἐδεδείχειν 


Numbers and Persons. 


Sing. 
ἕστεημι, ης, ἤσι, 
τίθ-ημι, ης, ησι, 
διδιωμι, ως, Wor, 
δείκνουμι, us, ὕσι, 

aie Sing. 
ἕστεηῆν, ης, ἡ, 
ἐτίθεην, 1S, ἢ), 
ἐδιίδ-ων, ως, ὦ, 
ἐδείκγευν, us, υ, 

Sing. 
ot-4Y, ης, ἢ, 
ἔθεην, ης, 1, 
ἔδεων, ὡς, ὦ, 


Present. 
Dual. 
&tov, ator, 
&TOY, δτον, 
οτον, οτον, 
ὕτον, υτον, 
Imperfect. 
Dual. 
atov, ἄτην, 
stov, ἕτην, 
οτον, ὀτην, 
troy, ὕὑτην, 
Second Aorist. 
Dual. 
ntOY, ήτην, 
δτον, ἕτην, 
οτο», ὀτῆν, 


β 


Plur. 
dusy, ate, Gov, 
δμδν, ETE, EOL, 
OMEY, OTE, οὔσι, 
ὕμδν, υτε, ὕσι. 


Plur. 
MEY, ATE, ασαν, 
EMEP, ELE, δσαν, 
ομδν, OTE, οσαν, 
UMEY, UTE, υσαν. 


Plur. 
ἡμδν, nts, ἤσαν, 
δμδν, STE, δσαν, 
μεν, ὁτδ; οσαν. 


135 : 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 
ἵστἅἄ-θι, 
site, τ [νων | ee 
δείκνὕ-θι, 


Second Aorist. 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 


στῆ-θι, στήτω, στῆτον, στήτων, στῆτε, στήτωσαν, 
θὲς, θέτω, θέτον͵ θέτων, θέτε, θέτωσ 
«δὸς, δότω, toad δότων δότε, δότωσ. 
=. ν᾽ OPTATIVE MOOD. 
yo Present. 

Sing. Dual. Plur. 
ἱσταέ-ην, 
τιθεί-ην, ὶ NS, ἢ; ἤτον, ήτην, iid mre, σαν, and 
διδοί-ην, ᾿ 

᾿ς Second Aorist. 

Sing. Dual. Plur. 
αταί-ην, ; 
θεί-ην, ὲ NS> ἤ, ἤτον, την, 5 a qt, your, and 
δοί-ην, ’ ry 

ἂς SUBJUNCTIVE ΜΟΟΡ ἡ 
te. ous a: --Presente - , 
“ewe - 
=“ ‘Bing. , ΑΝ τ. Dual. ὑπ - Ἦ ὦ 
ior-®, 7S, a εν ἤτον, i ῶ 
τιθεῦ, ἧς, Ty ἤπαλιηε-. ἦχον, ῶ 


350-0 Gs, at 2 © Sto» dior, Qpror, 


Sdcond Aorist, 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 


στῶ, στῆς, στῇ, στῆτον, στῆτον, | στῶμεν, στῆτε, στῶσι, 
θῶ, θῆς, θῇ, θῆτον, θῆτον, θῶμεν, θῆτε, θῶσε, 
δῶ, δῷς, δῷ, δῶτον, δῶτον, ἰδῶμεν, δῶτε, δῶσι, 


ς,: 


ere i eg a ar a pi atlas einai 55 
136 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
ἑστάναι. τιθέναι. διδόναι. δεικνύναι, 
Second Aorist. 
στῆναι. ϑεῦναι. δοῦναι. 
.PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Second Aorist. 
tot-as, aoa, άν. στάς, στάσα, στάν. 
τιθ-εὶς, sia, ἐν. ϑεὶς, Θϑεῖσα, ϑέν., 
διδ-οὺς, οὔσα ὀν. δοὺς, δοῦσα, δόν ᾿ 


δεινοὺς, doa, uv, ᾿ 

σὺ. ; : 

i FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 2 
The Imperfect | 


is formed from the Present by prefixing the Aug- 
ment and changing μὲ into ν, as τίθημι, ἐτίθην. 


The Second Aorist 


is formed from the Imperfect by dropping the 
Reduplication and receiving, in place of the re- 
maining initial vowel, the Ἐπ τον ibtiiont, as 
ἐτίθην, ἔθην ; ἐδίδων, ἔδων. ' 

If the Verb has no Reduplication, the Second 
Aorist is the same in form with the Imperfect. 


= ene RASSIVE VOICE. af 

The Moods andelenses; τ. 

Ν᾿ Indic. Imp. Opt. Subj# Inf. Part. 
ἵστ-αμαν τασο | -αἱ μὴν. Ξῶμδν a | -άμενος 


"ΑΝ; «οὐδ ἰθεεμαι -ἐσο | eluny ᾿δ-ὥμδι h-écQar | -ἐμενος 
Present. δίδιομαν -000 | -οἰμὴν [ξ -ὥμαν | -οσθαν | -ὀμενος 
δείκν-ουμαν  -υσὸ ευσθαν | «ὕμενος 
. ᾿ς Ὁ ἑστάμην ξ 
* ἐτιθέμην ᾿ 
tap. ἔδιδόμην the rest like the Present. 


ἐδευκνύμην 


eee ΤΥ ee ορ πὴ 


137. 


Tenses formed from Verbs in w. 


Ind. Imp. Opt. Subj. Inf. Part. 
ean -ασο |-αἰμην]-ὥμαι -ἄσθαν [-αμένος 
τέθ-δυμαν -δισο ἰ-δἰμην] -ὦμαι -δἴσθαν 1-διμένος 
Perfect. δέδ-ομαν «οσο [-οἰμην]-ὥμαι! -οσθαν [-ομένος 
δέδ-διγμαν «δἴχθαν |-διγμένος 
ἑστάμην 
ἐτεθείμην 
Plup. ἐδεδόμην 
ἐδεδείγμην 
ὅστάσ-ομαν . [Γοίμην].. -οσθαν | -dusvog 
P. p.F. ὁ sete νον « jrolugv| .. -ecbav | -dusvos 
δεδόστομαν |... « [-οἰμην). -εσθαν | -dusvog 
ἐστάθην στάἀθ-ητι-εἰην | -6 -Fvao -δὶς 
ἐτέθην τέθ-ητν |-δίην | -ὦ Fv ao «δὶς 
Ist. Aor. ἐδόθην δόθ-ητι [-δίην | -ὦ -ῆναν | -δὶς 
ἴ ἐδείχθην δειχθ-ηναι -δὶς 
σταθήσ-ομαι . . [-olunr|...| -sc0ac | -ὀμεγος 
τεθήσ-ομαυ . . |-olunr|...| -Ἔσθαν | -ὄμενος 
ist. Fut. δοθήσ-ομαν |... . |-oluny|)...| -scdas | -dusvog 
dsvyOijo-ouot| . . . . ‘ -so0at  -ὀμενος 


| Numbers and Persons. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present. 
Dual. 


&.. 


ἕστα- 
τίθε- 
δίδο- 


δείκνυ- 


aL, σαν, ται, 


Sing. 
ἱστά- 
ἐτιθέ.- 
ἐδιδό- 
ἐδοικνύ- 


μην, 00, το, 


Imperfect. 
Dual. 


13 


μδθον, σθον, σθον, 


μεθον, abo, σθην, 


Plur. ᾿ ea 


μεθα, σϑε, vr cn Ἢ 


a Ν 


a 


Plur. 


μεθα, σθδ, vt0 


138 


IMPERATIVE MOOD, - 


Present. 
Sing. ~ Dual. Plur. 
ἱστά- 
“oil go, σθω, - σθον, σθων, ots, σθωσαν 
δείκνυ- 
OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 
total. ὴ Ἶ 
τιθεί- μην,0, το, | μεθον, σθον, σθην, μεθα, σθε, ντὸ 
διδοί- 5 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 
ἰστ-ῶμαι, ἢ, ἦται, | ὠμεθον, ja0or, ἤσθον, | ὠμεθα, Hobe, ὥνται, 


ὦμεθα, ἤσθε, ὥνται, 
ὠμεθα, ὥσθε, ὥνται. 


ὠμεθον,͵ ἤσθον,͵ ἤσθον, 


τιθ-ῶμαι, ἢ, ταν, 
ὦμεθον, ὥσθον, ὥσθον, 


διδ-ῶμαι, ᾧ, ὥται, 


INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 
Present. Present. 
ἕστασθαι. ἱστάμεν-ος, 
τίθεσθαι. τιθέμεν-ος, 
δίδοσθαι. διδόμεν-ος, = 
δείκνυσθαι. δεικνύμεν-ος, 


Ἢ ie. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 


” The Present 
is formed from the Present Active, by shorten- 
ing the penultima, and changing w into wat, as 


ἵστημι, toccuc. 


The Imperfect 
is formed from the Present, by prefixing the Aug- 
ment, and changing was into μην, as τίθεμαυ; ἔτι- 
θέμην. 


MIDDLE VOICE. ~ 
The Moods and Tenses. 


The Present and Imperfect are the same as in 


the Passive. 
The Second Aorist. 


Indic. Imp. Opt. Subj. Infin. Part. 
ἑστάμην στάσο otaluny  στῶμαν | στάσθαν | στάμενος 
ἐθέμην ϑέσο ϑείμην ϑῶμαν | ϑέσθαι | ϑέμενος 
ἐδόμην δόσο δοίμην δῶμαν | δόσθαν | δόμενος 

Tenses formed from Verbs in ὦ, 
ἐστησάμην | στήσ-αι] -αἰμην | -wuas  -ασθαιν] -ἄμενος 
ἐθηκάμην : Cae 

ist. Aor. ὟΝ Tats CP oe ΡΣ een Ew ae τὸ 
ἐδειξάμην  δεῖξ-αν | -αἰμὴην | -wuor| -ασθαι] -άμενος 
στήσ-ομαι 
ϑήσ-ομαν 
Ist. Fut. ἡδρ ἐπῶν -οἰμὴν | ——— | -δσθαι | -ὄμενος 
δείξ-ομαν 
Numbers and Persons. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Second Aorist. 

᾿ Sing. Dual. Plur. 
ἐστά- ᾿ 
ἐθέ- ὲ μην, σο, t0,| μεθον, σθον, σθην, | μεθα, σθδ, ντο. 


ἐδό- 


IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Second Aorist. 


OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Second Aorist. 


Dual. Plur. 


abov, σθων, 00s, σθωσαν 


Sing. Dual. Plur. 
otal. 
re μην,0, to, | μεθον, σθον, σθην, μεθα, σθε, ντο. 
ol- 


140 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Second Aorist. 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 


~ ~ m4 f ~ ~ ~ ~ 
στ-ῶμαι, ἢ, ἦται, | ώμεθον, ἤσθον, ἤσθον,] ὦμεθα, jobs, ὥνται 
ϑ-ωμαι, ἤ, Are, ὦμεθον, ἤσθον͵ ἥσθον,] ὠμεθα, ἦσθε, ὥνται 
δ-ῦμαι, ᾧ, ᾧται, | ὠμεθον, Gabor, ὥσθον, | ὠμεθα, ὥσθε, ὥνται 


INFINITIVE MOOD. PARTICIPLE. 
Second Aorist. Second Aorist. 
στάσθαι. στά- 
ϑέσθαι. ϑέ- trove, μένη, μδνγον͵ 
δόσθαι. Ξ 


The Second Aorist Middle 


‘is formed from the Imperfect, by dropping the 
Reduplication, as in the Second Aorist Active; 


as ἐτιθέμην, ἐθέμην ; ἱστάμην, ἑστάμην. 
Special Remark respecting the Verb“ Iocnw. 


The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Second Aorist, Ac- 
tive, of ἵστημι, have an intransitive, the rest of 
the tenses a transitive, signification. ‘The Per- 
fect has also the signification of a present, aris- 
ing from its continued meaning, and the Pluper- 
fect the signification of an Imperfect: ‘Thus, io- 
φημι, I place; ἵστην, I was placing ; ἕστηκα, 1 
have placed myself, and continue placed, i. 6. I 
stand ; εἱστήκειν, 1 had placed myself, and con- 
tinued placed, i. 6. L was standing ; ἔστην, 1 
stood.— The Ist. Aorist, ἔστησα, denotes merely 
1 placed. 


General Remarks on Verbs in μι. 


ACTIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE. 


Obs. 1. The Ionic and Doric dialects often use the forms 
in ἕω, dw, ὀω, in the Present and Imperfect Singular, with the 


141 


Reduplication, as τιθεῖς, διδοῖς, ἐδίδους ; whether the contracted 
form in the present was used by the Attics also is a matter of 
dispute. 

Obs. 2. Inthe third person plural Present Indicative, os 
appears to have come from τὸ, in conformity with what was 
stated under the Barytone Verbs. The old termination in τι, 
underwent in each case one of two changes: 1. either the 
short vowel was lengthened after rejecting » before τὸ, so that 
8 became δέ, ὁ became ov, and & and ὕ were changed imto ἃ 
and 0; as τιθέντι, τιθένσι, τιθεῖσι; διδόντι, διδόνσι, dover; ἐσ- 
ταντι, ἵστανσι, ἱστᾶσι ; ζευγνύντι, Cevyvivor, ζευγγῦσι ; or else, 2. 
the » before the termination was changed, in the Ionic man- 
ner, into a, as τιθέασι, διδόασι, ζευγνύασι. The form in aos 
is called the Ionic, though often used by the Attics. 

Obs. 3. In ἵστημι, the Perfect ἕστηκα is most approved; the 
form ἕστακα, which is given in the common grammars, is 
chiefly found in later writers only, and in a transitive sense. 
The Doric form ἕστᾶκα with ἃ long, is distinct, however, from 
this. 3 

Obs. 4. Instead of ἕστηκα the form gore, contracted by syn- 
cope, is more used ; as ἕσταμεν for ἑστήκαμεν ; ἕστατε for éo- 
tyxate, &e. Hence the Participle ἑστώς for ἑστήκως, In 
striking out the κ from ἑστήκα, the form ἑἕἑστήα remains; the 
7 is then changed into α, as éotéa, which is farther contracted 
into the form gore. In the Participle ἑστήκως, the ἡ remains 
unchanged into @, and a contraction into ὡς immediately takes 
place. 

Obs. 5. Some irregularities occur in the formation of the 
Perfect of these Verbs. ‘Thus, Verbs in μι, derived from ἕω, 
change 7 in the pénultima of the Perfect into δι, as θήσω, τέ- 
θεικα. ‘This change of ἡ into εἰ, was originally peculiar to the 
Beotians, a branch of the Aolians, but was afterwards retained 
in the other dialects. wid. remarks on the verb sil, to be. 

Obs. 6. The First Aorist, in most of these verbs, differs 
essentially from the formation of that tense in Verbs in ὦ. 
For, instead of retaining the o of the future, the Verbs in μὲ 
generally change it into κ, as θήσω, ἔθηκα; ow, ἧκα ; δώσω, 
ἔδωκα. Perhaps these forms in @ were originally Perfects, 
but were afterwards used as Aorists, when a peculiar form 
was introduced for the Perfect. The forms also of the Aorists 
in κα, have not the rest of the Moods, nor the Participles. 

Obs. 7. The First Aorist in xa, occurs in good authors only 
in the singular number, and third person plural. In the rest 
of the persons the Second Aorist is more used, which again 
hardly ever occurs in the singular. 

13* 


142 


Obs. 8. The Second Aorist retains the long vowel in the 
penultima of the Dual and Plural, except in τίθημι, δίδωμι, and 
tyuc. The third person plural is often syncopated, as ἔθαν» for 
δύησαν ; ἔθεν for ἔθεσαν. 


IMPERATIVE. 


Obs. 1. Inthe second person of the Present Imperative, 
the contracted form is very frequent in τίθημι, ἵημι, and δίδωμε, 
as τίθει, ier, δίδου. ‘For ἕσταθι we find more commonly ἵστη. 

Obs. 2. In the Second Aorist, the second person is always 
θές, δός, not θέτι, 6. In Compound Verbs, the termination 
στα is frequently. found for στῆθι, as ἄναστα for ἀναστήθι; πα- 
ράστα for παραστῆθι. 

Obs. 8. The third person plural of the Present and Second 
Aorist ends, as in Verbs in w, frequently in sytwy for τωσαν ; 
as παραθέντων for παραθέτωσαν. 


OPTATIVE. 


Obs. The Optative Present and Second Aorist have in the 
plural, in the Poets as well as prose vriters, more commonly 
δίμδν, ELTE, ELEY ; αὐμδν, ALTE, HUEY 5 OLUEY, OTE, OLEY, 


PASSIVE AND MIDDLE VOICES. 


Obs. In the second person singular of the Present in the 
Passive and Middle, the Ionic dialect drops the o, and the 
Attic contracts that resolution, as ἕστασαι, Ionic ἕστααι, Attic 
ἵστη ; ἔθεσο, Ion. #60, Att. ἔθου 


INDICATIVE. 


Obs. The First Aorist Middle of τίθημι and δίδωμαιν, want 
the rest of the Moods and Participles. 


IMPERATIVE. 


Obs. The Imperative θοῦ, for θέσο θέο, occurs only in the 
compounds, as περίθου, ὑπόθου, παράθου. In ἵσταμαι, ἕστω is 
more common than ἵστασο. The Second Aorist Imperative 
and Optative Middle of ἵστημι, namely, στάσο and σταίμην, are 
given in the conjugation of that Verb merely to show the 
analogy. They are seldom used. 


OPTATIVE. 


Obs. ‘The Present Passive, and Second Aorist Middle of 
this Mood, have frequently the form of the Optative of a Ba- 
rytone Verb in ὦ, as τίθουτο, ἐπιθοίμεθα, πρόσθοιτο, &e. 


143 


IRREGULAR OR DEFECTIVE VERBS IN μὲ 


may be divided into Three Classes, each con- 
taining three Verbs. 

I. From % are derived εἰμί, to be; εἶμι and 
inut, to go. 

Il. From é ἕω are derived inus, to send ; ἧμαι, 
to sit; εἶμαι, to clothe one’s self. 

Ill. Ketwor, to he down; ἴσημι, to know; φημι, 
to say. 

CLASS I. 


1. Eiui, to be, 


has been before conjugated, as it is used in some 
of its tenses as an auxiliary to the Passive Voice | 


of Verbs in ὦ. Ze tVE Ry 
ΧΙ," fmt, 


INDICATIVE MO 
Present. ἣν sd 


2. Eiu, t 
but ett Library 


Wet ibd Mee 


Sing. _ Dual. Plur. 
διμι, δὶς OY 86, εἶσι, | troy, troy, | ἵμεν, ire, εἶσι, Yovor ἴασι. 
Imperfect. 
giv, ets, 62, | tov, ἴτην, | ἔμδν, ste, soar, 
Pluperfect. 
κεδιν, EUS, δι, | sutov,eltny, | εἰμδν, διτδ, δισαν. 


Second Aorist. 


ἴον, vec, ἴδ, | vetov,idtyy, | tower, vets, ἴον. 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
ἴθι, ΟΥ δι, ἴτω, | ἔτον, ἴτων, | ire, ἔτωσαν. 


Second Aorist. 


is, ἱέτω, | ἴδτον, ἰέτων, | ters, ἱέτωσαν, 


~~, 
*, 


4 
ἕν 


144 


OPTATIVE MOOD. 


Second Aorist. 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 
tour, ἔοις, ἴου; | ἴοιτον, ἰόντην, | ἔοιμεν, toute, ἴοιεν, 
SOUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Second Aorist. 


iw, ins, ἴη, | ἴητον, ἴητον, Ι ἴωμεν, ἴητε, ἴωσι. 
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE 
Present. Second Aorist , 
evvar or teva, |. ἰὼν, ἰοῦσα, ἰόν. 


MIDDLE VOICE 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Perfect. 


δια, δἷας, δἷε, élatov,élatov, | ἐίαμεν, ἐίατα, ἐίασι, 


Attic ἤϊα and ja, &c. 


Pluperfect. 
Hew, ἤέις, Hee, ἤδιτον, ἠξίτην,] ἤειμεν, ἤειτε, ἤξισαν, 
. , ΟΥ ἦμεν, ἦτε, ἦσαν. 
First Future. First Aorist. 
εἴσομαι. | εἰσάμην. 


Remarks on Ei, to go. 


Obs. 1. The Verb stu: in the Present has regularly the sig- 
nification of the Future, both in the Ionic and Attic writers, 
especially in the latter, as εἶμι καὶ ἀγγελῶ, Eurip. I will go and 
announce ; ἔμεν καὶ ἐπιχειρήσομεν, Dem. we will go and endea- 
-vour. We have in English an usage precisely analogous, in 
the verb “to go.” Thus we say, “1 am going to run,” “Iam 
going todo it.” A colloquial and vulgar barbarism renders 
this still more apparent, viz. “ J am going to go.” In Homer 
also we have forms of expression precisely analogous, as βῆ 
δ᾽ ἕεναι, literally “he went to go;” βῆ δὲ θέειν, “ he went to 
run.” In these, however, the future force is obscured by the 


145 


4 
use of the imperfect, since the true force of the phrase is that, 
he was going to go while some other action was at the same 
time pending. 

Obs. 2. In the second person singular Present Indicative, 
δὲ is more used in Attic than εἷς. 

Obs. 3. The Imperfect and Second Aorist belong to Epic 
poetry ; but δ and tev, ἔτην and ἴσαν are all that can be found 
except in composition. Matthie makes ἴον an old poetic Im- 
perfect ; and «iv, εἷς, εἶ, in the Imperfect, to be a mere inven- 
tion of the Grammarians which do not occur. 

Obs. 4. The mode of conjugating «cus, as far as regards εἶα, 
iia, ἦα, and ἤευν, has been retained. It is the opinion of Butt- 
mann, however, in which he is joined by Matthie, that qew 
is merely a form of the Imperfect εἶν, analogous to ἠεέδειν, 
ἤϊον, ἤξσαν, which in time, on account.of its resemblance to 
the Pluperfect, was conjugated as such; but that ἦα is ori- 
ginally the Ionic form, as ἔα, ἦα, for ἦν, from sit. This yo 
has the ὁ subscribed on account of the radical form ἴω, In 
jew, however, it appears to have been retained improperly, 
merely from its common derivation as a Pluperfect from ἦα. 
In confirmation of this opinion it is added, that these forms 
never have the sense of the Perfect or Pluperfect, but only 
that of the Imperfect and Aorist: ἦα is written in Ionic ἤϊα. 
Blomfield, however, in his remarks on Matthie’s grammar, 
considers ἦα to be actually the First Aorist from δἴω, or εἶμι, 
eo; thus ἤϊσα contracted into ἦα, as ἔχευσα into ἔχευα, and 
ἔκησα (from xéw) into ἔκηα. He farther observes, that in his 
opinion it may always be construed as an Aorist. 

Obs. 5. The Imperative #@ is more used than εἶ. 


3. “Inu, to go. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present. 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 
ἔημι, inc, ἴησι, | ἴετον, ἕδτον, | ἴομεν, Vere, ἱδῖσι. 
Imperfect. 


vecay, 


-OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
ἰδίη. 


146 


INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 
Present. Present. 
ἐέναι. | ἰεὶς, ἱέντος. 


MIDDLE VOICE. 


~ INDICATIVE MOOD. 
| *' Present, 
ἔδμαι, σαν, tat, | μεθον, σθον, σθον, | μεθα, σθε, νται. 


Imperfect. 
lé-uyv, oo, το, | μεθον, σθον, σθην, | μεθα, abe, ντο, 
IMPERATIVE. PARTICIPLE. 
Present. Present. 
isao, ἰέσθω. | ἐέμεν-ος, ἡ, 0. 


CLASS II. 


1, “Inus, to send. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present. 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 
yur, inc, igor, | ἵἕετον, ἕδτον, 1 emer, tere, tstov, 
Imperfect. 
tv, ἵἕης, %, | terov, ἱέτην, | ἵεμεν, fete, ἵεσαν. 
First Future. 
ἥσ-ω, δις, δι, | stov, stov, | ομδὲν, ets, ουσι. 
First Aorist. Perfect. . Pluperfect. 
ἧκα. in sine. δἵκειν. 
Second Aorist. 
ἣν, ἧς, 4, | ὅἕτον, ἕτην, | ἕμεν, ete, σαν. 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 


Yshr, ἱέτω, | Yerov, térwy,  ἰέτα, ἱέτωσαν. 


147 
First Aorist. Perfect. 


ἧκον. | una, 


Second Aorist. 
Dual. Plur. 


| ἕτον, ἕτων, | ὅτε, ἕτωσαν, 


OPTATIVE MOOD. 


Present. 
ἑεί-ην, 1S, ἢ, | ror, ηἡτὴν, | usr, Te, ἤσαν, 
First Future. Perfect. 
ἥσοιμ. i δἵκοιμι. 
Second Aorist. 
sf-ny, ἧς, ἢ, | ‘ytov, qty, | ἡμᾶν, 4T8, ἤσαν, 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
ἑῶ, ijs, ἢν ὃ) ἴἥτον, ἴῆτον, | ἰῶμεν, fire, ἰῶσι, 
Perfect. 
six-w, ἧς, ἢ, | tov, τὸν, μὲν, TB, wos, 


Second Aorist. 
6, ἧς, qs ] ἧτον, ἧτον, | Guay, Fre, ὦσι 
INFINITIVE MOOD. 


Present. First Future. 
ἱέναι. joe, 
Perfect. Second Aorist 
εἱκέναι. | εἵναι. 
PARTICIPLES. 
Present. First Future. 
ἑεὶς, isto, ἱέν, |. ἧἥσων, ἥσουσα, Foor, 
Ῥογίοοί,. Second Aorist. 


δἰκὼς, εἰκυῖα, sixds. | sic, sica, ἕν. 


148 


PASSIVE VOICE. 


~INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 

Sing. | Dual. Plur. 
ἕδεμαι, oar, tat, | μεθον, σθον, σθον, | μεθα, abe, 
» — Imperfect. 
ié-unv go, to, | μδθον, obov, σθην, | μεθα, σθε, 

Perfect. 
el-uor, σαι, tat, | μεθον, σθον, σθον, | μεθα, Os, νται. 
Pluperfect. 
sl-unv, a0, το, | meGov, σῦον, σθην, | μεθα, oe, ντο. 
P. p. Future. First Aorist. First Future. 
εἵσομαι. | ἔθην and εἴθην. | EOjoouce. 


Bee MIDDLE VOICE. 
πες Present and Imperfect like the Passive. 


First Aorist. 


Sing. Dual. Plur. 
ἡκ-άμην, ὦ, ato, | ἀμεθον, acbor, dobnr, | ἀμεθα, ασθε, arto, 


First Future. © 
ἥσ-ομαι, ἢ, εται, | ὀμεθον, εσθον, eabor, | ousbov, sobs, ovtae. 
Sééond Aorist. 
Suny, 800, ἕτο, | ἕμεθον, Fodor, ἕσθην, | ἕμεθα, ἕσθε, ἕντο 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


Second Aorist. 
ὅσο, 800m, | ἔσθον, ἕαθων, | ἔσθε, ἔσθωσαν. 


OPTATIVE MOOD. 
First Future. 


ἡσοί-μην, 0, το, | usdor, σθον, σθην, | μεθα, σθε, ντο. 


Second Aorist. 
sieuny, 0, τὸ, | meQov, σον, σθην, | μεθα, σθδ, ντο. 


149. 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


Second Aorist. ᾿ 
Guar, ἧ, ἧται,]} ὥμεθον, ἧσθον, ἦσθον, | ὥμεθα, ἧσθε, ὥνταε, 


INFINITIVE MOOD. 


First Future. Second Aorist. 
ἥσεσθαι. | ἔσθαι. 
PARTICIPLES. 
First Future. Second Aorist. 
ἡσόμεν-ος, ἡ, Ov, | ἕμεν-ος, ἢ, ον, 


Remarks on“ Inu. 


Obs. 1. This Verb has scarcely any irregularities, but is 
formed like τίθημι. 

Obs. ἃ. The Attics in the Second Aorist have εἴμδν, site, 
δῖσαν ; thus, ανεῖμεν͵ aveite, ἀνεῖσαν ; ἀφεῖμεν, ἀφεῖτε, ἀφεῖσαν. 

Obs. 3. “Inu, inthe Active Voice, signifies J send another; 
“Isat, in the Middle Voice, I send myself. Hence it is gene- 
rally used in the latter Voice in the sense of wishing ; thus, 
ἵεται αἰνῶς, Hom. Od. β΄, 327. He earnestly wishes. In this 
sense it is the root of ἵμερος, a desire, and of tusigm, to desire. 


2. Ημαι, to sit. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present. 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 
ἧμαι, Foor, Arar, | ἥμεθον, ἧσθον, ἧσθον, | ἥμεθα, habe, ἧνται. 
Imperfect. 


ἥμην͵ ἧσο, ἧτο, | ἥμεθον, ἧσθον, ἥσθην, ἥμεθα, habe, ἧντο. 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


Present. 
ἧσο, 7000, | Fodor, ἥσθων, | ἦσθε, ἥσθωσαν. 
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 
Present. Present. 
ἧσθαι. ᾿ | ἥμδνο-ος, ἢ, Ov. Ὅν 


14 


orm, 
Ps 


Ὁ KS ὡ- Ὃν 
150 ee 


Remarks on* Hiei 


Obs. 1. For ἧνταν in the third person plural the Ionians use 
Bator, as κατέαταν for κάθηνται, Herod. 1, 199, and the Poets 
δίαται, 1]. β΄, 137. So also in the Imperfect, the Ionic form 
is ἕατο, and the poetic stato, for ἧντο. 

Obs. 2. The compound κάθημαν is more common than the™ 
simple jor. This has also an Optative, καθοίμην, anda Be 
junctive, κάθωμαι. In the Imperfect it has ἐκαθήμην and χα- 
θήμην, ἐκαθήτο and καθῆστο. ‘The Grammarians consider xa- 
θήμην and καθῆστο the better forms. | 


3. Εἶμαι, to clothe one’s self. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present and Imperfect. 


+ - 
δἷμαι, δἷσαι, διται, and ae — εἵνται. 
slotae, 
Pluperfect. 
eluny, εἶσο and ἔσσο, —_—— — εἶντο. 
εἶτο, εἷξο, E80, and ἕςξο. 


First Aorist. 
εἷσ- . ᾿ 
ἕσδσ- ἐάων; w, ato, | ἄμεθον, ασθον, ἀσθην, | ἀμεθα, ασθε, arto, 
ἕδισ- Pe 
PARTICIPLES. 
Present and Perfect. First Aorist. 
εἱμένος. | ἑσσάμενος. 


Remarks on Εἶμαι. 


Obs. This Verb may be considered as Middle. The Active 
is the radical éw or évvuuc, forming ἔσω in the First Future, 
and eioe in the First Aorist. In the Infinitive of the First 
Aorist, εἶσαι, it has the σ generally doubled, as ἕσσω μὲν, Hom, 
Od. ρ΄, 79. I will clothe him. 


es 
CLASS III. 
1. Χεῖμαι, to lie down. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present. Ἂν 
Ἠδῖ-μαι, σαν, tot, | μεθον, σθον, σθον, | μεθα, σθε, νται. 


151 


Imperfect. 
éxel-uny, G0, το, | μεθον, σθον, σθην, | μεθα, σθε, ντο 
First Future. 
κείστομαν, ἢ, ὅταν, ὀμδθον, eodor, sabov, | ὀμεθα, εσθδ, ονται. 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 


κεῖσο, κείσθω,  κεῖσθον, κείσθων, | κεῖσθε, κείσθωσαν 


OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
κδοί-μην, 0, το, | μεθον, σθον, σθην, | μεθα, σθε, ντὸ 


SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 


i 


Present. First Aorist. 
κέωμαι. | κείσωμαι. 
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 
Present. Present. 
κεῖσθαι. | κείμεν-ος, ἢ» OV, 

Remark on Κεῖμαι. 


Obs. κεῖμαν is from the Ionic xéouae, From the form of the 
Imperative and Infinitive xéeao, κέεσθαι, κεῖσο, κεῖσθαι, it is con- 
jugated as a Perfect. The Ionians said κέαται for κεῖνταυς and ~ 
éxéato for ἔκειντο. The Subjunctive κῆταο occurs 1]. τ', 32. 


2. "Ionut, to know. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. ἣ 


Present. ΕἾ . 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 
Yo-nur, 1S, 47s ατον, ator, αμδν, OTE, ὲ ἕω 
and μδν and te, ? 
Imperfect. 
ἔσ-ην, 1S, 1; | aroy, aryy, omer,ote, ασὰν and αν. 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 


ate and te, ἄτωσαν, 
τωσαν and των. 


ατον and τον, άτων, 


ἔσ-αθι, and 6, άτω, 
and τῶν, 


. and τω, 


᾿νῶν. 


152 


INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 
Present. Present. 
ἰσάναι. | ἔσα-ς, σα, »- 


MIDDLE VOICE. 


INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
ἔσα-μαι, σαν, ταῦ, | μδθον, σθον, σθον, Ϊ μεθα, σθε, νται. 
Imperfect. 
ἰσά-μην, oo, το, | μδεθον, σθον, σθην, | μεθα, σθε, ντο. 
INFINITIVE. | PARTICIPLE. 
Present, Present. 
ἔσασθαι. | ἐσάμεν-ος, ἡ, ov 


Remarks on” Ionut. 


Oés. 1. The Verb tony occurs in the singular only in Do- 
ric writers, as ἔσαμι, Pind. Pyth. 4, 441. Theoer. 5,119. So 
ἔσατι for ἴσησι, Theocr. 15,146. Participle ἔσας, in the da- 
tive ἔσαντι, Pind. Pyth. 3,52. In common use, the dual and 
plural are only used, as ἴστον, ἔστον (for ἔσατον), ἴσμεν, ἴστε, 
(for ἴσαμεν, ἔσατε,) ἴσασι. These are attached to oda; thus 
οἶδα, οἶσθα, οἷδε, Dual. ioroy, ἔστον, Pl. ἔσμεν, tore, ἴσασι. 

Obs. 2. For ἔσμεν, the Ionians have ἔδμεν, which arose 
either from changing ¢ into 0, or was more probably abbreviated 
from οἴδαμεν. 

Obs. 3. ᾿Επίσταμαν is not, as some have imagined, formed 
from tonur, but appears properly to be the middle voice of 
ἐφίστημι, the same as ἐφέστημι τὸν γοῦν, retaining the Ionic 
form for ἐφίσταμαι. 


4, φημί, to say. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present. 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 
φημὶ, φὴς, φησὶ, | φατὸν, φατὸν, | φαμὲν, φατὲ, φασί. 
Imperfect. 


ἔφ-ην, 4S, ἢ, | ατον, ἄτην, | ausy, ate, ασαν and ay, 


153 


First Future. 


Sing. Dual. Plur. 
φήσ-ω, etc, δι, | δτον, ETOP, | ομδν, 88, ουσι. 
First Aorist. | 
ἔφησ-α, as, 8, | ατον, ἄτην, | OEY, HTS, αν, 
Second Aorist. 
ἔφ-ην, ἧς, ἥν | πητον, ἤτη, | usr, yrE, ἤσαν, 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
φάθι, φάτω, | φάτον, φάτων, | pats, φάτωσαν. 
OPTATIVE MOOD. 
Present. 
φαίτην, ἧς, ἢ, ἤτον, ἡτήν, ἡμεν, ἢτβ, ἤσαν 


μδν, τὸ, 8ν. 


First Aorist. 


φὴήσ-αιμι, oc, at, | actor, alryy, | oper, aete, αὐδν 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present. i 
φῶ, 7S, φῆ, | φῆτον, φῆτον, φῶμεν, pire, φῶσι. 
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. 
Present. Present. 
φάναι. | φὰς, φάσα, pay. . 
First Aorist. First Future. 
φῆσαι. | φήσων. 
Second Aorist. First Aorist. 
φῆναι. | φήσας. 


PASSIVE VOICE. 


INDICATIVE. IMPERATIVE, 
Perfect. πέφαται. | πεφάσθω. 
INFINITIVE. _ PARTICIPLE, 
πεφάσθαι. | πεφασμέν-ος, ἡ, ον. 


14* 


154 


MIDDLE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 


Present. 
Sing.- Dual. Plur. 
φα-μαι, σαι, ται, | μδθον, σθον, abor, | μδθα, σθδ, νταῖι. 
᾿ Imperfect. 


ἐφά-μην, oo, το, *| μεθον, σθον, cnr, | μεθα, σθε, ντο. 
IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


Present. 
φάσ-ω, O60, Gov, Owy, | 6s, Owour, 
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. 
Present. Present. 
φάσθαι. | φάμεν-ος, ἢ, ov. 


Remarks on ΦῬημι. 


Obs. 1. In place of ἔφην, ἔφης, ἔφη, in the Imperfect In- 
dicative Active, the form ἦν, ἧς, ἦ, is frequently used; as 7 
δ᾽ ὅς, said he; ἦν, δ᾽ ἐγώ, said I. A form for the Present is 
ἦμί, which occurs in Aristophanes, Nub. 1145 ; Ran. 37. 

Obs. 2. The imperfect ἔφη», &c. is generally placed after 
one or more words of the speaker, like the Latin znguzt, even 
when another word of the same signification precedes: as, 
“0.08 Κῦρος εἶπε, ὅτι εὶς καιρὸν ἥκεις, ἔφη. Xen. Cyrop. 3, 1,8. 

Obs. The infinitive φάναν is always used in the sense of 
past time, 6. g. φάναν τὸν Σωκράτη, “ἐμαὶ Socrates has said.” 


A General List of Irregular and Defective Verbs. 


THERE are few Verbs in the Greek language, 
which can be regularly conjugated in all their 
Moods and Tenses. Some of these deficiencies 
may be traced to harmony: of others, it 15 diffi- 
cult to assign the causes. Defective ‘Tenses are 
supplied either from obsolete forms of the same 
Verbs, from kindred forms in other dialects, or 
from some other Verbs in use. To assist the 


155 
learner in tracing these tenses to their respective 
Themes or Roots, the following list has been 
compiled. It consists of analogies, as far as 
they can be applied to any species of Verbs; but 
in general it contains the particular formation of 
each tense in common use. 

Of the following Verbs, those which are used 
only in the Present and Imperfect, will be found 
in the first column; the next column will con- 
tain the obsolete Roots, followed by the Tenses, 
which are formed from them. 


A, 


To ad-” Ayopa, ἀγάω, ἀγάσομαι, ἠγασάμην, ἤγασμαι, ἠγάσ- 
mire, θ 


ην. 
break, <Ayviw, : ἄγω, ἄξω, ἦξα, Aya, ἦγον. 


"Ayvuur, 4 τάχω, ἔαξω, ἔαχα, ἔαγον, ἐάγην, ἔαγα.3 
To act,” Ayo, : 
ine torte, ἤγαγον, ἠγαγόμην, 
χα 
please, ‘Adu, ἀδέω, ἀδήσω, ἥδηκα, ἦδον and ϑαδον, 
᾿ς *Avdave, ϑαδα.3 


Verbs in αζω, frequentatiwes, as τροχάζω, to 
run often.* 
Verbs in aéa, derivatives,’ as διωκάδω, from 


διώκω, to pursue. 
Verbs in ovw, derivatives,’ as κεραίω, from χκεράω, 


to mix. 


1. "Ayo, to break, conjugated with the Digamma, Fréyw, forms éFaéa, 
traya, ἔβαγον. But as the Digamma is seldom expressed in writing, 
the words will be ἔαξα, Zaya, ἔαγον. 

2. The aorist ἥξα is not used by good writers. We have likewise in 
the passive voice, perf. jypac; 1. aor. ἤχθην ; fut. ἀχθήσομαι ; and an old 
form which remained in Doric, ἀγήγοχα or ἀγάγοχα and ἀγήοχα. 

3. This seems to be put for frada, That aw had the Digamma ap- 
pears from evade, Odyss. π΄, 28. 

4. Verbs of these three classes, and others in this list of the same form 
have generally the Pres. and Imperf. only. 

Bo In this list, Derivatives are those which are derived from other 
erbs. 

6. From Substantives and Adjectives, verbs in aw, ew, vw, ευω, afw, fa, 
αἰνῶ, ww, are generally derived; as τιμάω from τιμὴ, φιλέω, from φίλος, 


156 


To take, Aioéa, ἕλω, εἴλον, εἱλόμην, ἑλῶ, ἑλοῦμαι, 
αἱφήσω, εἰλάμη». 
ἥρηκα, 


perceive, Aicddvouor, αἰσθέω, αἰσθήσομαι, ἤσθημαι, ἡσθόμη». 
; ᾿Δλδαίνω, 
snorease, ineaoas addin, ἀλδήσω, ἤλδηκα. 
> ἀλέκω, ἀλεξάμην. 
ματα Of, ᾿Αλέξῳ,- ; ἀλεξέω, ἀλεξήσω. 
shun, °Aléopar, . ἀλεύω, ἤλευσα, ἤλευάμην, and ἠλεά- 
μὴν by Syncope. 


roll, * Aluvdéo, Glin, ἀλέσω, ἤλικα. 
Gléw, ἁλώ-σω, σομαι, ἥλωσα, ἥλωκα 
take, “«Ἅλέσκω, and δάλωκα, ἥλωμαι, ἥλων 
and ἑάλων 2 
find out, ᾿“λφαίνω, ἀλφέω, ἀλφήσω. 


sin, ᾿“μαρτάνω, ἀμαρτέω ἁμαρτή-σω, σομαι, ἡμάρτη-σα, 
| κα, μαι, ἥμαρτον, Poet. ἤμ- 


ὄροτον. 
open, ᾿«“νώγω, 
ἀνώξω, ἀνωγέω, Imp. ἠγώγουν, ἀνωγήσω. 
ἤνογα and ἀνώγημι, Imp. ἀνώγηθι, ἄνωχθι. 
ἄνογα,8 ᾿ 
be hated, ᾿4πεχθάνομαι, ἀπεχθέῶ, ἀπεχθήσομαι, ἀπήχθημαι, ἀπ- 
: ἡχθόμην. 


please, °Agéoxw, ὶ ἀρέω, ἀρέ-σω, σομαι, ἤρεσα, ἠρεσά- 
μην, ἤρεσμαι, ἠρεσθην. 
αὐξή-σω, σομαι, ἠύξη-σα, μαι, 


Toin- ᾿Αυξάνω, ee ἊΣ 
3 


er Aitw 

ease, Ade τῇ ἤυξηθην. 
be dis- "ἄχθομαι, ἀχθέω, ἀχθέσομαι, ἠχθέσθην, ἀχθε- 
pleased, σήσομαι. 


Verbs in aw, frequentatives, as ixetéw, to come 
Frequently. 


δήλω from ὄδηλος, δουλεύω, from dovdos, δικάζω, from δίκη, ἐλπιζω from ἐλπις, 
σημαινω from σημα, μηκυνω from μηκος, &c. 

1. εἵλάμην is a later Alexandrian form. 

2. ἥλωκα and ἥλων, are used in a passive sense, as is also ἁλώσομαι, the 
future middle. 

3. In the Attic poets this verb always occurs in the perfect without 
an augment, but with it in the pluperfect. 

4, dow has, according to its two significations, two different futures. 
In the sense of “‘ to annex,” “ to adapt,” it has fut. ἄρσω, aor. ἦρσα, &c. 
In the sense of “to render favourable,” “to conciliate,” it agrees in flex- 
ion with the former only in ἄρσαντες κατὰ θυμόν, 1]. d, 136, ἤραρε, θυμόν ἐδωδῇ, 
Od. é, 95. Otherwise it makes fut. ἀρέσω, &e. 


157 


Verbs in caw, signifyiug desire, as μαθητιάω, to 


desire to learn. 


Verbs in aw, signifying imitation, as χιάω, to 


be white as snow. 


δάω, 
£0, Baiva,} βιδάω, 
βίδημι, 
to cast, Βάλλω, βλέω, 
βαλῶ, 
ἔθαλον, βαλλέω, 
βέδολα, βλῆμι, 
βολέω, 
live, Βιώσκω, ; pus 
bud, βλαςξάνω, βλαςέω, 
feed, Βόσκω, ; este: 
will, Βούλομαν, βουλέω, 
eat, Βρώσχω, ; ἄμε: 
Βιδρώσκω, βεθρώθω, 


Β, 


βήσομαι, ἔδησα, ἐβησάμην, βέθη- 
κα, μαι, βέδαα, 2d. Fut. βέομαι.2 

Part. Pres. βίθων. 

2. A. ἔδην, Subj. Bsim, Part. Pr. 
βιβάς. 

βλήσω, βέδλη:κα, μαι, δδλήθην, 
βληθήσομαι. 

βαλλήσω. 

ἔβλην, 2d. A. Opt. M. 94. Pers. 
βλεῖο. 

βέβολα. 

βιωσόμαι, βέδιω-κα, μαι, ἔβιον. 

ἐδίων. 

βλαξήσω, βεθλάξηκα, ἔδλαεον. 

βοσκή-σω, couar, βεδόσκηκα. 

βώσω, βέβωκα. 

βουλήσομαι, βεδούλημαι, ἐθουλήθη». 

βρώσω, βεθρωκα. 

ἔδρων. 


βεδρώθοιμι. 


Verbs in βω, preceded by a consonant, as φερ- 


Ew, to feed. 


Ty; ἔγημα, 
ἐγημάμην, 


Τηράσκω, ; 


To mar- Γάμω, 


grow 


old, 


Τ. 


ἀμ» 
γαμέω, γαμήσω, γαμήσομαν, ἐγάμησα, 
γεγάμη-κα, μαι, ἐγαμήθην. 


γηράω, γηράσομαι, ἐγήρασα, γεγήραπα. 
γήρημι, Pr. Inf. γηράναι, Part. γηράς. 


1. This verb has with the Ionians the causative signification, “to 


bring.” 
aor. ἔβησα. 


This signification is exclusive in the fut. act. βήσω, and Ist. 


2. Βέομαι occurs in Homer in the sense of ζήσομαι, “1 shall live ;” 


properly, “J shal? walk wpon the earth.” 


Here the subjunctive receives 


the sense of the future, as is-probably the case in πίομαι for πίωμαι, al- 
though elsewhere it is never used thus, 


158 


γενέω, γενήσομαι, éyevnoduny, γεγένημαι, 
become, Γίγνομαι, ἐγενήθην, ἐγενόμην, γέγονα. 
Filvouce,} γείνω, γείνομαι, ἐγδινάμην. 
γάω, γέγαα. 
γνόω, γνώ-σω, σομαι, ἔγνω- κα, σμαε, ἐγ- 


ἀν % 
ἄπου, Τιγνώσκω, 4 γώσθην, γνωσθήσομαι. 


gee ἢ ἡ γνῶμι; ἤγϑων; 
4. 
“Ὁ δαέω, δαή-σω, σομαι, δεδάηκα and δέδαα, 
learn, alo, δεδαήμαι, ἐδάην, (δέδηα, 2 Aor 
M. Subj. δαήται, to burn.) 
divide, dalw, δάζω, δά-σω, σομαν, Mace, ἐδασάμην, δέ- 
: δα-κα, σμαι. 
bite, «“«άκνω, δήκω, δή-ξω, ξομαι, ἔδηξα, δέδη-χα, γμαι, 


ἐδήχθην, ἔδακον. 
sleep, «“΄αρθάνω, δαρθέω, δαρθήσομαι, δεδάρθηκα, ἐδάρθην, 
ἔδαρθον and ἔδραθον. 


Sear, minded dsldyus,Imper. δέδιθν and δείδιθι, 
δέδει hie dio, ἔδιον, Perf. M. δέδια. 
ask, déowas, δεέω, δεήσομαι, δεδέημαι, ἐδεήθην, δεηθή- 
cous. 


teach, “Ιιδάσκω, 
διδάξω ἐδιδεσκίω, διδασκήσω, 
δεδίδαχα, 

To fly, 4ιδράσκω, t Jodo, δρά-σω, σομαν, ἔδρασα, δέδρακα, 
διδράξω, δρῆμι, ἔδρην and ἔδραν. 


1. To the old root γένω, which corresponds with the Latin gigno, be- 
long two significations; the causative beget, and the immediate or 
intransitive am born, become. 'The voices are anomalously intermin- 
gled. ‘The whole, as found in actual use, may be reduced to a two- 
fold present ; as follows: 

1. γείνομαι, has only the signification of birth, (poetically in the pre- 
sent tense) am born. In the aorist, ἐγεινάμην is used transitively, 
beget, bear. 

2. γίγνομαι (Ancient and Attic; more recently γίνομαι) fut. γενήσομαι, 
&c. The future, 2d. aorist and perfects passive and middle sig- 
nify intransitively born, or simply become. ‘T'o these unites itself 
the signification of simply to be, and ἐγενόμην and γέγονα are also 
used as perfects to εἶναι. . 

2. γίγνωσκω Ancient and Attic; more recently γινώσκω, 

3. the perfect δέδια is either formed from δέδοικα, by omitting «,as in ~ 
dédaa, yéyaa, and changing the diphthong into the short vowel, as ἐπέ- 
πιθμεν, ἐΐκτην, from πέποιθα, ἔοικα ; or else it is immediately derived from 
the present diw; as in dédovra, ἄνωγα. This form in the plural suffers 
syncope; as, δέδιμεν δέδιτε, pluperf. ἐδέδισαν, for δεδίαμεν, dediare, ἐδεδίεσαν. 

Attic δέδια is only used by the poets. 

4, The student must be careful not to confound this with the regular 
contracted verb δράω, to do. 


159 


think “οκέω 1 aia ¢ δόξω, ἔδοξα, δέδο-κα, γμαι and “uq- 


Poet. δοκήσω, iar 
φὴς δοάω, ἄνθος ἐδοασάμην, Syn. ἐδοά- 
δυνάω, δυνήσομαι, ἐδ υνησάμεν, δεδύνημαι, 
be able, ύναμαι, } _ ἐδυνήθην, 
δυνάζω, ἐδυνάσθην. τ 


Δ ide -§ a 
rise; § δύω, δύ-σω, σομαι, δέδυ-κα, opal 


δῦμει, ἔδυν. : 
Verbs in dw, preceded by a consonant, as xvu- 
λίνδω, to roll, , 


Ε. 
excite, Eysiga,? ἐγερῶ, ἤγρομην, ἐγρήγορα. 
ὦ... ἐς Sonne, ἐδέσθην, Kinde. 
Tied ἐδόω, ἔδοκα and ἐδήδοκα, ἐδήδομαι. 
Verbs in «6, derivatives, as φλεγέθω, from 
φλέγω, to burn. 


see or Eidw,* 


know, εἴσω, sidew, δἰδήσω, εἴδη-σα, κα, Plup. ἤδειν, 
εἶδον, δον, ( εἰδημι, Pr. Opt. εἰδείην, Inf. δἰδέναιν. 
οἴδα. 


Verbs in ενώ; poetical, as ἐρεείνω, to ask. 


1. The regular forms of this verb, viz. δοκήσω, ἐδόκησα, &c. occur only 
in the Poets and old prose writers. 

2. This verb originally connects the immediate signification enter, 
with the causative enclose. In the common usage it has only the latter 
(to enclose, to sink, &c.) and retains this meaning in the future and Ist. 
aorist, δύσω, ἔδυσα, passive édv0nv. The middle voice δύομαι, I enclose 
myself, passes into the intransitive meaning enter, descend, &c, which, 
however, again reverts to a transitive meaning, as, enter a garment, 
that is, to dress. These significations of the immediate kind are re- 
tained in the active voice, in the perfect dédixa, and the 2d Aorist, ἔδυν, 
δῦναι, dis, dd0c, dire. The form δύνω is more recent, and is equivalent in 
signification to the middle δύομαι, 

3. The middle voice has the signification “ I arouse myself,” i. 6. I 
am wakeful, I watch. ; 

4, ἘΠδω has two senses, see and know. In the first signification it 
occurs only in the 2d aorist, εἴδον, in Homer ἴδον, imperative ἐδέ, opt. 
ἴδοιμι, Subj. ἴδω, infin. ἐδεῖν, part. ἰδών. These forms are used to supply 
the defective tense of ὁράω, which has no 2d. aorist. In the sense of to 
know, it does not oceur in the present; instead of the present, and in 
the same sense, the perfect ofda is used. The manner of inflecting 
οἶδα (some parts of which are not found in good writers, viz. οἴδαμεν, 
οἴδατε, οἴδασι) may be seen in the remarks upon ἔσημι, among the verbs 
in »«.—Besides these two meanings, εἴδω has also in the old poets a pas- 
sive form in the sense of to appear, to resemble, to be seen. . 


160 
say, δἰπεῖν,1 δἶπον, εἰπέ, εἶπα, εἰπόν, δἰπάτω, εἶπαι. 
ask, Eiow,? ἐ 
Sow; sigéw, δἰρήσομαι. 
ρον" ἐρέω, ἐρήσομαι, δἴρη-κα, μαι, εἰρέθην. 
Verbs in evo, signifying desire, formed from 
Futuges, as ὀψείω, to desire to see, from data, F. 
ὄψω. ; | 
To drive, ᾿Ελαύυω8ϑ ἐλάω, ἐλάσω, ἤλασα, ἠλασάμην, ἤλακα and 
ἐλήλακα, ἤλαμαι, ἐλήλαμαν and 
ἤλασμαι, ἠλάθην and ἠλάσθην. 


am employ- “Exo ,* ὲ 2d. Aor. ἔσπον, σπεῖν, σπών. 
ed, pursue, 
ask, ἜΕρομαι,5 ἠρόμην, ἔρεσθαι, ἐρήσομαι. 


perish, "E600, ἐῤῥέω, ἐῤῥήσω, ἤῤῥησα. 
make red, ᾿Ερυϑαίνω, ; ἐρυθέω, ἐρυθήσω. 


ἐρύθω, ἐρύσω. 


1. The second aorist εἴπον, &c. is more common than the Ist. aorist, 
εἶπα, &c. With this aorist use has associated the fut. ἐρῶ (lonic ἐρέω) from 
stow—As the present of this verb, φημί is used; sometimes also ἀγορεύειν. 
In some compounds λέγω furnishes the present, as ἀντιλέγω, ἀντεῖπον. 
As regards the form of the Beli εἴρηκα, We must suppose either that 
ἔῤῥηκα, ἔῤῥημαι were also used, or that the εἰ was arbitrarily considered 
as an augment, which might be again talen from the verb, as if the 
present tense had been féw. For otherwise the derivatives ῥῆμα, ῥῆσις, 
ῥήτωρ from ét-pnyat, ci-pnoat, εἴσρηται, cannot be explained. ‘To this arbi- 
trary root may be referred also ἐῤῥέθην or ἐῤῥήθην, ῥηθῆναι, ῥηθείς, Eipé0n 
in Herodotus is analogous to εἴρηκα, εἴρηται, as εὕρηται, εὐρέθην. Others 
derive ἐῤῥήθην from a peculiar form ῥέω, which, however, if it ever did 
exist, was first derived from εἴρηκα in the same arbitrary manner. 

2. See preceding note. 

3. The root of ἐλαύνω, is ἔλω, which, besides ἐλάω, and ἐλαύνω, admits 
the forms ἔλλω, εἴλω, εἰλέω, ἴλλω, to bring together, compel, drive into a 
corner. From εἴλω, ἔλλω, comes the Homeric ἔλσας, ἔλσαι, to crowd to- 
gether, to drive together: from cidéw, ἀπειλέω, comes ἀπειληθείς in Hero- 
dotus; from ἔλλω comes, perhaps, also the Homeric ἑάλην, ἀλείς, ἀλῆναι, 
(as ἐστάλην from στέλλω), at least it agrees entirely in its signification 
with ἔλλω, εἰλέω, and hence points to a similar origin. From ἔλλω ap- 
pear likewise to come ἄελλα, ὦ storm ; dodjs, collective, assembled. From 
éoda the perf. mid. the form οὖλος, as οὖλαι rpixes.—The Aolians said 
ἐλαύω for ἐλαύνω, the Beeotians used ἐλάω. 

4. Of this ancient verb compounds for the most part only are in use; 
it has εἰ for an augment, as διεῖπον. The 2d. aorist forms are rather 
poetical. The verb ἕπομαι, 1 follow, has an aorist which corresponds 
wish the active ἔπω, except that in the indicative it is aspirated ; ἑσπόμην, 
σπου, σπέσθαι, Which forms occur chiefly in composition. 

5. This verb occurs in the common language ¥. : as an aorist, ἠρό- 
pny, ἤρετο, whence also the other moods are found. The defective parts 
are supplied from ἐρωτάω. 


161 


come, "Eoxouat,’ ἐλεύθω, ἐλεύσομαι, ἤλευσα, ἤλυθον, Syn. 
ἦλθον, Perf. M. ἢλυθα and 
ἐλήλυθα. 
eat, "Eo0o, 
᾿Εσθίω, ss : 
sleep, Edda, εὐδέω, δεδὑδήσω. 
find, Εὐρίσκω, sdoéw, εὑρήσω, δὑρησάμην, δὕρη-κα, 


μαν, δὑρέθην, δὑρεθήσομαιυ, 
δῦρον, εὑρόμην. 
σχέω, σχή-σω, σοόμὰν, ἔσχη-κα, μαι, 


have, Ἔχω, ἐσχέθην, σχεθήσομαν, ἔσχον͵ 
; ἕξω, ἐσχομην. 
σχῆμι, 2d. A. Imp. oxés. 
cook, "Ewo, éwéw, eyrjow, eyioouae, 
Ζ. 
Ζάω,3 ' 
hve, ω , Chu, ἔζην, ζήθι and ζῆ. 


ζήσω, 
To gird, Ζωννύω, καὶ ζόω, ζώσω, ἔζωσα, ἐζωσάμην, ἔζω-κα, 
Ζώννυμι, , σμαυ, ἐζώσθην. 


Θ. 


be willing, Θέλω, ϑελέω, ϑελήσω, ἐθέλησα, τέθεληκα. 

sharpen, Onyéva, ϑήγω, ϑήξω, ἔθηξα, ἐθηξάμην, τέθη- 
χα, γμαι. 

touch, Ovyéva, ϑίγω, H-Fw, ξομαι, ἔθιγον. 


1. This verb is used only in the present and imperfect; yet je is 
very frequently met with for ἠρχόμην. The Attics do not use the future 
ἐλεύσομαι from ἐλεύθω, but take in its stead εἶμι in the sense of the future. 
Some later Attic writers, however, use the form ἐλεύσομαι. 

2. As trw has a 2d. aorist, formed by inserting o; so from ἔχω is 
formed a 2d. aorist, ἔσχον, in the middle ἐσχόμην ; and, in the same man- 
ner as in ἔσπον, σπεῖν, σπών, this ε is omitted in the rest of the moods, as 
if it had been an augment. From this ἔσχον, ἔχω is made into ἴσχω, 
(as ἐνίσπω from évérw) which, in Attic more particularly, often occurs 
in the same sense as ἔχω. The forms of the aorist without « are again 
made the basis of other forms (as σπεῖν of oneidetv,) and from the present 
σχέω, which is only imaginary, comes, on the one hand, the fut. σχήσω, 
middle, σχήσομαι) which the Grammarians without reason call more 
Attic than ἕξομαι) perf. ἔσχηκα, &c. which are chiefly used in composi- 


tion. 

3. The old classic writers use the tenses from βιόδω, βιώσομαι, ἐβίωσα, 
βεβίωται, in preference to those from ééw. And yet ζήσουσι occurs in 
Plato, Rep. 5. p. 36. ζάω, is one of the few verbs which instead of the 
vowel of contraction a, have a Doric n; as ζάω,͵ ζῇς, ζῇ ; ἔζων, ἔζης, ἔζη, &e. 

15 


162 


Γϑνάω, τέθνηκα, τέθναα, τέθνεικα and 

τέθνεια, τέθνεως, (woo, gen. 

WTOS). 

die, Θνήσκω, } ϑάνω, ἔθανον, 2. F. M. ϑανοῦμαι. 
ϑνήξω, τεθνήκω, τεθνή-ξω, ομαι. 

τέθνημι, Pr. Imper. τέθναθι, Opt. τεθ- 
ναίην, Inf. τεθνάναι, Part. 


Maik τεθνὰς, 2 Aor. ἔθνην. 
leap, Θορνύω, » 
Odovumr, og ϑορήσω, ἔθορον, ϑοροῦμαι. 
Θρώσκω, 
| 1 


place, «“δρύνωο, ἱδρύω, ἱδρύσω, ἵδρυσα, ἱδρυσάμην, ἵδ- 
ρυ-κα, μαι, ἱδρύθην and ἰδ. 


ρύνθην. 
cause to sit. ᾿Ιζάνω, ; ταὶ 2 a 
3 3 . 


Verbs in ἐζω, derivatives from Verbs, as πολε- 
μίζω from πολεμέω, to fight. 


direct, “Ιθύνω, it,  ἰθύσω, ἴθυσα. 
ὕκω, ἵξομαι, ἱξάμην, ἵγμαι, ἱκό- 
come, “Ἰκνέομαιυ, ᾿ μην, 
: io, ἴξον, 
᾽ ἱλαω ἱλάσομαι, ἱλασάμην, ἕληκα 
ἄβΡοῦϑε, ΠΝ mee ἰλάσθην, ἰλασθήσομαι, ὃ 
pes ἵλημι, ἵλαθι, Pr. Μ. ἵλαμαι. 
Χ. 
Το “Ἵπτημι 
ἥν, baa: ᾿ ὲ πτάω, πτήσω, πέπτηκα, πέπταμαι. 
Κ. 
1 
to burn, yet Αἰ κήω, ἔκηα and ἔκδια, ἐκηάμην and 
Hy oe ἐκειάμην, ἔκαον, ἐκάη». 
| πδράω, περάσω, ἐκέρασα, ἐκερασά- 
mix, Κεραννίω, μην, κέκερασμαν, ἐκεράσ- 
Κεράννυμι, < θην, κἐρασθήσομαι. 
Κίρνημι, κράω, κράσω, κέκρα-κα, μαι, ἐκρά- 
' ἕ θην, κραθήσομαι. 


1: In Attic κάω is used, having the long a and being without contrac- 
tions: fut. καύσω, 


Κερδαίνω, 

κδρδανῶ, ὲ thls 
κεκέρδαγκα, 

Κιχάνω, ὶ κιχέω, 

Κίχημι, 

Κλάζω, 

κλάγξω, ὗ κλήγω, 
κέκλαγχα, 

Κλαίω,1 ὴ 
κλαύσω, κλαιέω, 
κέκλαυκα, § 

Kiio, κλῦμι, 

Ὗ , 2 
Κορεννύω, ἄλλης 
Kogévvums, 
Κρεμαννύω,3 anew; 
Κρεμάννυμι, “0 Sanu 
Κτείνω, 
κτεγῷ, κτήμι 
ἔκτακα, and 
ἔκτονηκα, 

κυλίω 
naa ; κυλενδέω 
Κυνέω, οὐ 
κυνήσω, st 
4. 


κδρδή-σω, σομαν, ἐκέρδησα, 
κδκέρδηκα. 

κιχήσομαι, ἐκίχησα, ἐκιχησά- 
μην, ἔκιχον. 


Perf. Μ. κέκληγα. 


κλαινήσω. 


Imper. κλῦθι and κέκλυθε. 

κορέσω, ἐκόρεσα, ἐκορεσά- 
μην, κέκορηκα, μαι, ἐκο- 
ρέσθην. 

κρεμάσω, ἐκρέμασα, ἐκρδμα- 
σάμην, ἐκρεμάσθην. 

κρέμαμαι. 

ἔκτην, 2 A. Μ. ἐκτάμην, Inf. 
κτᾶσθαι, Part. κτάμενγος. 

κυλίσω, δκυλίσα, ἐκυλίσθην. 

κυλινδήσω. 


κύσω, ἔκυσα and ἔκυσσα.. 


λή-ξω, ἕομαι, λέληχα, Att. 
εἴληχα, γμαι, ἔλαχον, Perf, 
Mz λέλογχα. 


1. In attic κλάω is used, havin 
tions, like κάω: fut. κλαύσω, &e. 


g the long a and being without contrac- 


2. Not to be confounded with the regular xopéw, iow, to sweep. 
3. The aorist passive ἐκρεμάσθην is common to the middle and intran- 
sitive signification: but the future passive κρεμασθήσομαι belongs solely 


tO κρεμάννυμι. 


In consequence of this the intransitive has a peculiar fu- 
ture, κρεμήσομαι, I will hang. 

4, Between λήχω and λαγχάνωϊ 
diate form λάγχω. 
Doric and Ionic, rarely in Attic. 
uses a new verb λελάχω, in a transitive sense, ‘ to depart.” 
350. χ΄, 949, w’, 76. 


here seems to have been an interme- 
Hence the old perfect λέλογχα, which occurs in 
From the 2d. aorist, ἔλαχον, Homer 


Il, ἡ, 80. ὁ, 


e have also λελαχήσωμεν in Hesychius. 


164 


r AiG, λήψομαι, λέληφα, Att. δἴληφα, 
λέλημμαν and εἴλημμαι, 
ἐλήφθην and εἰλήφθην, ληφ- 
recewe, Aapbdrw, < θήσομαι, ἔλαθον, ἐλαθόμην 
λαδέω, λελάθηκα. 

λάμθω, λάμψομαι, ἐλαμψάμην, λέλαμ- 
- μαι, ἐλαμφθην. 


be con- «Δανθάνωξ λήθω, Imp. ἐληθον, λη-σω, σομαι, 
cealed, or : λελησμαν and λέλασμαι, 
escape, ἐλήσθην, ἔλαθον, ἐλαθό- 


μην, λέληθα. 
M. 


learn,  Μανθάνω, μαθέω, μαθήσομαι, ἐμαθησάμην, μεμά- 
θηκα, ἔμαθον. 
obtain, Μάρπτω, μάπω, ἔἜμαπον, μαπεέιν. 
fight, Μάχομαι3ϑ μαχέω, μαχήσομαν and μαχέσομαι, ἐμα- 
χεσάμην, and ἐμαχησάμην, 
μεμάχημαι, 2 Ἐς μαχοῦμαν 
about tobe, μέλλω, μελλέω, μελλήσω, ἐμέλλησα. 
care, Mého,* μελέω, μεγήσω, ἐμελησάμιν, μεμέλη-κα, 
fav and μέμθλημαι, ἐμέληθην, 
ὅ ἔμελον, μεμήλα, 
F ὰ μὲ ω, pl-Ew, ξομαι, ἔμεξα, μέμι-χα, γμαι, 
Lo me ΩΣ ἢ μα μεμίξομαι, ἐμίχθην, 2. Δί ἘΣ 
δ'έ, or f, ἐμίγην, μιγήσομαι. 
remem- Μιμνήσκω, μνάω, μνήσω, couar, ἔμνησα, ἐμνησάμην, 


ber, μέμνημαι, μεμνήσομαι, ἐμνήσ- 
θην, μνησθήσομαι. 
remain, Μίμνω, μδνέω, μέμενηκα. 


wipe off, Μοργνύω, 
Μόργνυμι, ᾿ μόργω, μόρξω, ἐμορξάμην. 
᾿Ομόργνυμι, 
bellow, Mixa, 
μέμυκα, onde, μυκήσω. 
ἔμυκον, 


1, For εἴλημαι, Euripides (fon. 1113.) uses λέλημμαι, whence the Doric 
λέλαπται in Hesychius, ‘The form λελάβηκα is Ionic, and analogous to 
απεκτόνηκα from dxéxrova, Another old form is λάζομαι. 

2. From ἔλαθον Homer has a new verb λελάθω, in a transitive sense, 
“to make to forget.” 1}. 6’, 600. 

3. Both μαχήσομαι and μαχοῦμαι are used in the derivative tenses. 
The first, however, is common: ‘Epayecdyny oceurs in Attic, ἐμαχησά- 

μην in Homer. 

4. This verb is chiefly used as an impersonal. 


165 


Ν. 
inhabit Nai, νάω, νάσομαι, vaca, ἔνασάμην, ἐνάσ- 
θημ. 
Verbs in νάω, ὃ derivatives, as περνάω from 
το βιὰ ΜΌΝ, περάω, to pass over. 


0. 
be pained,’ Οδάξω, ὀδαξέω, ὀδαξήσω. 
‘ ὀζέω, ὀζέσω and ὀζήσω, ὥζεσα. 
Perf. M. ὧδα,: 


swell, Οἰδαίνω, 


Οἰδάνω, οἱἰδέω, οἱδήσω, ᾧδη-σα, κα. 
Οἰδίσκω, 
think Οἴομαι,2 - < 
oe Ott οἰέω, οἱήσομαι, ᾧημαι, ᾧμην, φήθην. 
g0, Οἴχομαι, οἰχέω, οἰχήσομαι, ᾧχη-κα, μαι. 
2. A. ὠφχόμην, οἰχόωο, ᾧχωκα. 
To slide, Ολισθαίνω 
> θλισθ eae ὀλισθέω, ὠλίσθη-σα, κα, ὥλισθον, ὠλίσθην. 
destroy, ᾿ Ολλύω ΐ 
Beda Oldvur ; ὀλώλεκα, ὠλέσθην, Shor, ὥλο- 


μην, ὀλοῦμαι, Ge and ὄλωλα. 

ὀὁμόω, ὀμόσω, ὥμοσα, ὠμοσάμην, ὥμοκα 
and ὀμώ-μοκα, wor, 2, F. Μ. 
ὀμοῦμαι. 

ὀμόργω, ὀμόρξω, ὠμορξάμην. 

ὀνέω, ὀνή-σω, σομαιν, ὥνησα, ὠνησάμην 


swear, ᾿Ομνύω, 
"Ouvum, 
imprint, ᾿᾽Ομοργνυμι, 


assist, “Ovnus, and ὠνάμην, ὥνημαι, ὠνάθην, 


ΐ dléw, ὀλέσω, ὥλεσα, ὥλε-κα, μαι, and 


tia, 2. Aor. ὥναμην. 
rise, ᾿Ορνύω, dow, ὄρσω, ὥρσα, guar, ὄρωρα and 
Ορνυμι, ὥρορα, ὠρόμην. 


smell, ’ Oogoatvoua, ὀσφρέω, ὀσφρήσομαι, ὠσφρόμην. 

owe, ᾿Οφείλω, Ὑ) ὀφειλέω, ὀφειλήσα, ὠφειλήκα, ὥφειλον, 
*Ogiw, and ὥφλον, 
᾿Οφλισκάνω, ) ὀφλέω, ὀφλήσω, ὥφληκα. 


1. "Ὅδωδα, has the sense of the present. 

2. In the Imperfect we have ὠύμην and ᾧμην. In the rest of the per- 
sons and moods οἴομαι only is the basis. The active forms οἴω and ὀίω, 
are retained in some dialects, in Homer both are frequent. The Spar- 
tan woman, in Aristophanes Lysistr.156. uses οἴω. Thomas Magister, 
p. 645. states that the Grammarians made a distinction between οἶμαι, 
and οἴομαι, applying the one to certain, determinate things, the other to 
indeterminate things. This distinction is so nice that hardly any lan- 
guage, except one of books, could ever have observed. it. 

15 


166 


i. 


Γπήθω, πείσομαι, Boeot. for πήσομαι, 

€ ἔπησα, ἔπαθον, πέτηθα. 

δον, Πάσχω, ὦ παθέω, παθήσω, ἐπάθησα, πεπάθηκα. 

Perf. M. πέπονθα, πέποσ-θα 
and χα. 


pass, Περνάω, Ε΄. Syn. πράω, πράσω, πέπρα-κα, 


Πέρνημι, ἡ 
Πιπράσ sats ae πέπρασομαι, ἐπράθην, 
Holaie, ρα ἤσομαι. 
boil, Πεσσω, πέπτω, πέψω, ἔπεψα, πέπεμμαι, ἐπέφθην. 
πετάζω, πετάσω, ἐπέτασα, πεπέτακα and 
ἐπ πυμῦξα, πέπετασμαι, πέπτασ- 
foe and πέπταμαι, ἐποτάσθην. 
niyo, πήξω, ἔπηξα, ἐπηξάμην, πέπη-. 
χα, γμαι, ἐπήχθην, ἐπάγην, 
παγήσομαν, πέπηγα. 


πώσω, πέπω-κα, μὰν and πέπο- 
To drink, συν: Ξ μαι, ἐπόθην. 


lay open, Πεταννύω 
Petiorwu 


fasten, Πηγνύω, 
Πήγνυμι, 


Ud πίω, Pres. M. πίομαι, πίσομαι, ἔπιον 
Hts 2. F. M. πιοῦμαιυ. 
πῖμι, Imper. aide. 


give to 


diink, Πιπίσκω, πίσω, ἔπεσα. 


oe πλήσω, ἔπλησα, ἐπλησάμην, πέ 
πλησμαι, ἐπλήσθην, πέπληθα 

πλήμι, Imp. Pass. ἔπλημην. 

πτόω, πέπτωκα. 

ἄξω, ἔπεσα, eee 

mace, ἔπεσον, 2. F. Μ. πεσοῦμαι. 

sneeze, Πτάρνυμαι, πταίρω, ἕπταρον. 

inquire, Πυνθάνομαι, πεύθω, πεύσομαι, πέπυσμαι, ἐπυθόμην, 

πυθοῦμαι. 


fil, Πίπλημι, 
Πίμπλημι, 
Πιμπλάνω, 


fal, Πίπτω, 


1. ILepéw, to pass into another country ; περνάω, to pass for the purpose 
of selling ; πρίαμαι, in the Middle Voice, to buy a person, or thing, 
brought from another country. 

2. The old verb πέτομαι is the root, by which was expressed the 
spreading of the wings in flying, and afterwards merely the general 
idea of spreading. 

3. The forms πίσω, ἔπισα, have the meaning “give to drink.” ὙΠῸ 
present passive πίομαι, with « long, is used in a future sense “ Iam 
about to drink ;” instead of this, the later writers used the form πιοῦμαι, 
which is censured by the Grammarians. The fature πίσομαι 15 adduced 
from Auntiphanes by Eustathius, and the verbal πιστός seems to refer to 
an old perfect passive πέτισμαι.  - 


P. 
do, “Ῥέζω, ἔργω, Att. ἔρδω, ἔρξω, ἔργμαι, εἴργ- 
ῥέξω, | wae and ἔεργμαι, Perf. M. 
ἔῤῥεξα, ἔοργα. 
flow, “Ῥέω, δυέω, ῥυήσω, ῥυήσομαι, ἐῤῥυήκα, 
? ἐῤῥύην. 
ἐΡῃγνύ ῥήσσω, ῥήξω, ἔῤῥηξα, ἐῤῥηξάμην, 
— Bt her ἔῤῥηγα, and ἔῤῥωγα, ἐῤ- 
i ot ῤάγην, ῥαγήσομαι. 
ae 3 δόω ῥώσω, ἔῤῥω-σα, κα, wor and 
μέλος τ A ᾿ ᾿ αμαν, ἐῤῥιυθήν, ἐῤῥώοδ; 
εἰς τ τες farewell. 
=. 
σθέω, σθέσω, ἔσθεσα, ἔσδεκα and 
quench, «ΣΘεννύω, ἔσθηκα, ἔσθεσμαι, ἐσδέσ 
Σθέννυμι, θην, σθεσθήσομαι. 


σθήμι, ἔσθην. 
scatter, «“Σκβδαννύω, § σκεδάω, σκεδάσω, ἐσκέδα-σα, omar, 
Σ κεδάννυμι, ἐσκεδάσθην. 


To σκλάω, σκλήσομαι, 1. A. ἔσκηλα, ἔσ- 
κληκα, ἐσκληῦῶς. 
dry. top, ei, : σκλῆμι, Pr. Inf. σκλῆγαι. 


Verbs in oxo,’ derivatives, form their tenses 
from their primitives, as εὑρίσκω, εὐρεω, εὑρήσω, 


σπεί-σω, σομαν, ἔσπεισα, ἐσ- 
πεισάμην, ἔσπεισμαι, ἐσ- 
πείσθην. 


offer liba- Σπένδω, 
tion, 


1. According to Hermann (De Em. G. α΄. p. 293.) there are two radi- 
cal forms, ἔρδω, and Zeyw. From the first came épdew, and by transpo- 
sition ῥέζω, (ρέδσωγ; from the second ἔοργα, ἔρξω, ἔρξα, and by transposi- 
tion ῥέξω, ἔρεξα. 

2. Verbs in σκω, which have a great affinity to Verbs in μι, are derived 
from Primitives in dw, ἕω, 6w, and tw, and are formed by the insertion 
of κ after the o of the Ist. Future: thus from γηράω, γηράσω, is formed 
γηράσκω, to grow old; from ἀρέω, ἀρέσω, ἀρέσκω, to please; from βιόω, βιώ- 
cw, βιώσκω, to live; and from μεθύω, μεθύσω, μεθύσκω, to be drunk. 

Some of these, like Verbs in μι, prefix the Reduplication, as γιγνώσκω, 
to know, from γνώσω; τιτρώσκω, te wound, from τρώσω, Some change the 
vowel of the penultima, as 486, ἡβήσω, ἡβάσκω, to grow up. 


spread, ag hee στορέω, στορέσω, στορῶ, ἐστόρεσα, ἐσ 
TOQEVYUML, ‘ Pee Raga 
Pvopr uni, τορεσάμην, ἐστόρεσθην. 
“ΣΣτρωννύω, Heed στρώσω, ἔστρωσα, ἐστρωσά- 
Στρώννυμι, μην, ἔστρωμαι. 
have, Σ χέθω, σχέω. 
- TT 
bear, Ταλάω, τλάω, τλήσομαι, τέτληκα. 
Τέτλημι, τλῆμι, ἔτλην. 
ἕω τδμήσω. 
Té teu 7 μ 
ΝΣ ΤΠ τμήγω, τμήξω, ἔτμηξα, τέτμη-κα, μαι, 
εὐοδία ἐτμήθην, ἔτμαγον, ἐτμάγην, 
: τμαγήσομαι. 
bring Τίκτω, ἢ τέκω, τέ-ξω, ξομαι, ἐτέχθην, ἔτεκον, 
forth, ἐτεκόμην, τετοκα. 
re srikgital? τράω, τρήσω, ἔτρησα, τέτρη-κα, μαι, 
through, Τίτρημι ba Mle 
iat a τιτραίνω, 1. A. ἐτίτρηνα. 
wound, Τιτρώσκω, τρύω, τρώσω, σομαι, ἔτρωσα, τέτρω- 
μαι, ἐτρώθην, τρωθήσομαι. 
δραμέω, δεδράμην-κα, μαι. 
To run, Τρέχω, . ἃ 
δρέμω, ἔδραμον, 2. F.M. δραμοῦμαι 
ϑρέξω, J 
δέδρομα. 
eat, Τρώγω, φάγω, φάγομαι, ὦ. F. Μ. φαγοῦμαι, 
ἔτραγον, ἔφαγον. 
5 tuyéw, τυχήσω, ἐτύχησα, τέτυχηκα. 
be, Τυγχάνω,; τεύχω, ἔτευξα, τεύξομαι, τέτευχα, τέτυγ- 
ὶ μαι,τετύξομαι, ἐτύχθην, ἔτυχον. 
ὁ δῇ 


promise, ᾿ Ὑπισχνέομαι, ὑποσχέω, ὑποσχήσομαι, ὑπέσχημαι, ὑπέσχ- 
δθην, ὁμην. 
Verbs in ὑόδω, derivatives, as φθινύθω, from 


pbéw, to consume. 
Verbs in tw, polysyllables, as σβεννύω, to 


quench. 


1. The kindred verbs τεύχω and τυγχάνω, must be carefully distin- 
guished as respects meaning: the first denotes to prepare, and is regu- 
lar in its formation, the second to attain,to happen. 'The verb τυγχάνω 
has the meaning to happen, to find one’s self, only in the present, imper- 
fect, and 2d aorist, viz. τυγχάνω, ἐτύγχανον, and ἔτυχον: the rest of the 

tenses (and also ἔτυχον likewise) have the signification to attain. 


169 
®, 


i φάω, φήσω, ἔφησα. 

φημὶ, ἔφην, ἐφάμην. 

Γοΐω, οἴσω, οἴσομαι, οἴσθην, οἰσθήσομαι. 

ἐνέκω, 1. A. ἤνεγκα, ἠνεγκάμην, ἠνέχθη», 
ἤνεγκον, ἠνεγκόμην, 

δνέκω, 1. Α. anaes ἠνεικάμην, ἐνήνεγμαι, 

bear, Φέρω, 4 ἠνέχθην. 

| ἐνέχω, Per. M. ἐνήνοχα. 

φορέω, φορήσω, ἐφόρησα, ποφόφημαι, Syn. 
φρέω,1 φρήσω, 

| pojut, Imper. A. 2. φρές. 


Say, φάσκω, 


To ὠθάνω φθάω, φθάσω, φθήσομαι, ἔφθα-σα, κα. ς 
prevent, : φθῆμι, ἔφθη». 

corrupt, Φθίνω, φθίω, φθί-σω, σομαι, ἔφθισα, ἔφθι-κα, μαι. 
pro- Φύω," 


duce, Diow. 
πέφυκα, 


φῦμι, ἔφυν». 


χαρῶ, χαιρέω, χαιρήσω, ἐχαίρησα, κέχαρη-κα, μαι, 
κέχαρκα, κδχαρήσομοαι., 

χάζω, ἔχαδον, κέχαδα. 

χείω, χείέσομαι. 

χαίνω, χανῶ, χανοῦμαι, ἔχανον, liane and 


obtan, Χανδάγω, 


rejoice, Χαίρω, ὶ χαρέω, ἼΩΝ χαρήσομαι, ἐχάρην. 
gape, «Χάσκω, ἢ 


«Χασκάζω, κέχηνα. ‘ 

colour, «Χρωννύω, ὁ ώ ἀμὸν, 
Rodman αὶ 1 ο. ee χρω-μαν and ou 

bury, Xavvin, xbw, χώσω, ἔχωσα, πέχωσμαι, ἔχῴσθην, 
Χόννυμι, χωσθήσομαι. 

drive, ᾿ΙὨθέω, 
ἔωθουν, st, ow, Goa, ὦσμαι, ὥσθην. 
ὠθήσω, 


VERBAL \L NOUN S 


are formed from Tenses of the Indicative, by dropping the 
augment and changing the termination. 


1. ®péw is used only in composition, as ἐκφρεῖν, to bring out, εἰσφρεῖν, 
to bring ia, διαφρεῖν, to bring through. ‘The old Grammarians derive it 
πος 790-3; AS φροίμιον, φροῦδος, from προοίμιον, πρόοδος. 

2. Φύω signifies to produce ; Φῦμι, in the middle sense, to suffer one’s 
self to be produced, or to be born. The Perf. πέφυκα, as well as the 2, 
Aor. ἔφυν, φῦναι, and φὺς, have a Passive signification. 


170 


Some are formed from the Present, as δύναμις, strength, 
from δύναμαι, to be able; κλέπτης, a thief, from κλέπτω, to steal. 

Some few from the Aorists, as δόξα from ἔδοξα ; θήκη from 
ἔθηκα ; φύγῃ from ἔφυγον ; πάθος from ἔπαθον. 

The larger proportion, ‘however, are formed from the Per- 


fect. 


1. From the Perfect Active, distinguished by ~, x, or g, in 
the last syllable, as 5 φρίκη from πέφρικα ; διδαχὴ from δεδίδαχα ; 
γραφὴ from γέγραφα, 

2. From the Perfect Passive, as follows : 

From the Ist pers. sing. are derived Nouns ending in wos, 
‘a / μη, μων, μα, μιος. ‘The letter u being the characteristic. 
- ὁ Σ 


“ . 
> 6 
2m 
᾿ 
--Μ 
Sad 
” 
2 
& 
ΙΜΩΝ 
Σ 
, 


—MIOZX 


“ 
᾿΄ 


Those ending in μος, signify either a per- 
formance of the action of the Verb; as xo- 
λασμὸς, an infliction of punishment, or some- 
thing used in inflicting such action ; as δδσ- 
“os, a chain or bond. - 

Those in wy, which are few in number, 
seem generally to signify some effect pro- 
duced by the action of the Verb; as ygap- 
μὴ, a line, μνήμη, a@ mention. λ 

Those in “a, generally signify a person 
or thing, endowed with the power, or faculty, 
or disposition, to perform the action of the 
Verb; as μνήμων, one who remembers, ἐπιλήσ- 
μων, one who is forgetful, ἐπιστήμων, one who 


g is skilled, ἥμων, one skilled in throwing, ἐλεή- 


μων, compassionate. 


Those in me, signify the very thing pro- 


‘ duced by the action of the Verb, or upon 


which that act is performed, or about which 
_ it is employed ; as ἔρυμα, a fortification, (the 
"thing strengthened), πτύγμα, a fold, δόμα, a 
gift, (the thing given.) 

Those in μιος, have a sort of passive sig- 
nification, and denote some fitness or suit- 
ableness to the action of the Verb, as σεδάσ- 
μιος, venerable, ἐράσμιος, amiable, ἀκέσμιος, 
curable. 


From the 2d. Pers. Sing. of the same Tense, are derived 
Nouns Substantive in δὲς, Sus, and yvc, which signify the action 
of the Verb abstractedly considered, as vious, spinning, λέξις, 
reading, βλέψις, seeing. ‘The letter o is the characteristic. 


—Iz 


—IA—IAZ 


From these verbals in ἐς are derived Nouns 
Substantive in «« and τας, and Nouns Adjec- 


—ZIMOZ 


171 


tive in σιμος ; as, from σύνθεσις and θέσις, 
are formed συνθεσία, an agreement, and Θυ- 
alas, Baccha, and from πόσις comes πόσιμος, 
potable. ‘These last in oxwos commonly have 
a passive signification, like those in suo 
above mentioned, and like them may general- 
ly be translated by the Latin Verbals in dilis 
and dus, or the corresponding English term 
able, as ἀράσιμος, execrandus, detestable, γελ- 
άσιμος, ridendus, laughable, οἰκήσιμος, inhabit- 
able, βρώσιμος, eatable. 


From the third Pers. Sing. of the same Tenses, are formed 
a great variety of Nouns, havirg 1 as the characteristic, of 


which, 


-ΤΗΣ-ΤΗΡ-ΤΩΡ Those in της, THQ, τωρ, signify the agent 


—TIX-—TPIA 
—TEIPA 


-TYZ 


“Τὸ Σ 


-ΚοΣ 


who performed the act indicated by the Verb, 
as ποιητὴς, θηρευτὴρ, ῥήτωρ. 

Those in τις, τρις, τρία and τειρα; are of 
the feminine gender, and have a like signifi- 
cation with the last mentioned, as οἰκέτις, 
οἰκήστρις, μαθήτρια, ποσμήτειρα. 

Those in tvs, derived from this 3d. Pers. 
Perf. Ind. Pass. signify commonly the art of 
performing the act of the Verb, as κιθαριστὺς, 
the art of playing on the harp, ὀρχηστὺς, the 
art of dancing, ἀγορατὺς, eloquence, ἀκοντιστὺς, 
the art of throwing the javelin. 

Those in tos commonly have a Passive 
signification, and are Adjectives applied to 


the object of the Verb’s action, as αἱρδτὸς, 


eligible, αἰνετὸς, laudable, εὑρετὸς, discoverable. 

"There is a great resemblance between 
these and the above mentioned Adjectives in 
σιμος, so that the same word is sometimes 
found in both forms, as zords, and πόσιμος, 
potable, οἰκητὸς and οἰκήσιμος, habitable. 

Those in κος have an Active signification, 
denoting ability to perform the action of the 
Verb or some relation to such action, as δύ- 
gstixds, inventive, πολεμικὸς, warlike, οἴκητι- 
κὸς, disposed to seek an habitation, κτητικὸς, 
skilled in acquiring. 


THPIOZ-THPIA Those in τήριος, τήρια, τήριον, denote some 


~THPION 


aptitude or efficacy in the subject, as ἀλεξη- 
τήριος, repulsive, remedial. The feminine and 


172 


neuter terminations are used as Substantives 
as ἰξευτήρια (τέχνη being understood,) the art 
of taking birds with ἰξὸς, bird lime, κολαστή- 
θιον (χωρίον, understood,) a place of punish- 
ment. ‘The termination τήριον has almost 
always a particular reference to place, as 
- δεσμωτήριον, a prison, a place of confinement ; 
δικαστήριον, a court, a place for dispensing 
justice; &c. Occasionally, however, nouns 
with this termination depart from analogy ; 
thus ἀναπαυτήριον, besides denoting a resting- 
lace, signifies also a time for enjoying rest. 

-TPOS-TPA-— ‘Those in τρὸς, τρα, and tg0v, may be con- 

-TPON sidered as derived by syncope from the last 

mentioned Nouns, and the feminine and neu- 
ter terminations are in like manner used 
Substantively, to denote some instrument or 
thing, by assistance of which, or in conside- 
ration of which, the action of the Verb is 
performed, as ἀκόστρα, a needle, ὀρχήστρα, the 
orchestra, or that part of the stage in which 
the chorus danced, δίδακτρον, the reward of the 
teacher, ἰατρὸν, the physician’s fee. With 
words of this class, ἀργύριον may be under- 
stood, as χρῆμα or πρᾶγμα may with φόδητρον, 
θήρατρον, &c. 

—TPIAZ To these derivatives from the third person 
are to be added a few Nouns in τρίας, which 
signify one who-acts from habit, as ἀλήτριας, 
a sinner, ἀντριὰς, one who lives in, or frequents, 
caves. 

-~EOZ-EON And lastly, those in δος, of which the neu- 
ter gender coy answers to the Latin Gerund 
in dum, as ποιητέον, faciendum, γραπτέον, scri- 
bendum. 

By way of exercise, the above analogical rules may be ap- 
plied to the following derivatives ; as from κοσμδω, orno. 
κόσμημα, κόμησις, κοσμητὴς, κοσμήτωρ, κοσμήτειρα, κοσμητὸς, 
κοσμητικὸς, κόσμητρον. 
From καθαίρω, purgo. 
καθαρμὸς, κάθαρμα, κάθαρσις, καθαρτὴς, καθαρτὴρ, καθαρτικὸς, 
καθαρτήριος, καθαρτέον. 
From κολάζω, punzo. 
κολασμὸς, κόλασμα, κόλασις, κολαστὴς, κολαστήριος, κολαστή- 
ριον, κολαστιπὸς. 


173 


From μανθάνω, disco. 

μάθημα, μάθησις, μαθητὴς, μαθήτρια, μαθητρις, μαθητος, μαθη- 
τέον. 

3. From the Perfect Middle come Nouns terminating in a, 
ας, EUS, ἡ, NS, τς, 06; as φθορὰ from ἔφθορα, νομὰς from γένομα, 
τοκεὺς from τέτοκα, τροφὴ from τέτροφα, τύπης from τέτυπα, Bo- 
Ais from βέθδολα, τομὸς from τέτομα, &e. 


ADVERBS. 


Those which require particular notice, as dis- 
tinguished from the Latin, are the following : 

Adverbs ending in θᾶ, ὄν, οἱ, ov, χη; and you, 
signify motion in a place ; as ἐνταῦθα, here ; ovga- 
vobt, in heaven; otxor, at home; Abjynor, at 
Athens ; πανταχῆ and πανταχοῦ, every where. 

Adverbs ending in θὲ and δὲν, denote motion 
from a place; as οὐρανόδε and οὐρανόθεν, from 
Heaven. 

Adverbs ending in δὲ, Ce, and oz, denote mo- 
tion to a place; as οὐρανόνδε and οὐρανόσε, to 
Heaven ; χαμᾶζε, to the ground. 


Obs. 1. Adverbs in 4 were originally, no doubt, genitive 
cases ; for, nouns with this termination sometimes stand as 
genitives ; (thus, ᾿1λεόθι πρό, Il. θ΄, 557. ἠῶθι πρό, Jl. Δ΄, 50, 
ὅτ.) and in others the common termination also of the geni- 
tive occurs in the same sense; as ὅθι, poetic form, and οὗ, 
πόθι and ποῦ. 

Obs. 2. Adverbs in οἵ appear to have been old Datives, and 
to have the « adscribed according to the old mode of writing, 
instead of having it subscribed; thus, οἴκοι, πεδοῖ, ᾿Ισθμοῖ, for 
οἴκῳ, πεδῷ, ᾿Ισθμῷ, with the preposition ἐν understood. 

Obs. 3. Adverbs in o were originally datives plural from 
the Ionic dialect. After, however, that this σὺ was once con- 
sidered merely as an adverbial termination, and no longer asa 
termination of the dative plural, it was annexed also to other 
names in «; as ᾿Ολυμπίασι, at Olympia; Πλαταιᾶσι, at Platee. 

Obs. 4. The Adverbs ποῦ, πῇ, ποῖ, ὅπου, &c. are all oblique 
cases from the obsolete pronouns πός and ὅπος. Hence also 
πόθεν, ade, πόθι, as ᾿1λίοθεν, ᾿Ιλίοθι, ᾿Ιλίοσε. 

16 


: 174 


Obs. 5. Adverbs in θεν appear to have been also old geni- 
tives, or rather the termination 9s» was added to nouns as a 
badge of the genitive, just as we find gv paragogicum added to 
the oblique cases of some nouns in the Poets; and afterwards, 
these forms in θεν were used as Adverbs. In the Ionic dia- 
lect θεν becomes in the Poets θὲ on account of the metre. 

Obs. 6. ‘The termination δὲ (according to another pronun- 
ciation, 9) is generally annexed to the accusative case with- 
out alteration, as olxovde, πεδίονδε, ἅλαδε, Μαραθῶναδε. If σ 
precede the ὃ, instead of σδ the letter ¢ is put, as ᾿“θήναζε for 
᾿Αθήνασδε, Θήδαϊζε for Θήδασδε, θύραζε for θύρασδε. When 
this had once obtained as the termination of words of place, 
it was annexed also to other words without respect to the form 
of the accusative, as ’ Ohuunlate, Movvuziate, from ’ Ολυμυπία, 
Mouvvzia; thus also φύγαδε for εἰς φυγήν, in Homer ; οἴκαδε 
and οἴκονδε, in Homer and the Attics. 

Obs. '7. The Dorians, in place of the termination δε, used 
δὲς or dvs, as οἴκαδες. Homer also has χαμάδις in place of 
χαμᾶζε, Homer sometimes puts the termination δὲ twice, as 
ὃνδε δόμονδε, Il. π΄, 445, &e. 

Obs. 8. The terminations θα, 4, οι, σι, χη and you, supply 
the place of the preposition ἐν; those in θὲν and θε, of the 

‘preposition ἐκ; and those in de, Ce, ve, of the preposition εἰς 
or πρὸς. 

Obs. 9. Some Adverbs have such an affinity, that beginning 
with a Vowel, they are Indefinites, with πὶ Interrogatives, with 
t Redditives. 


Indefinite. Interrogatwe. Redditive. 
Which Way Which Way? Ἰτῆδε, ( This Way. 
ἥ, ar By what [τὴ By what or < By this 
Means. ‘Means ? ταύτη, ὴ Means 


Ξ 


ᾧ For what rea- For what Rea- For that Rea- 


Son. son ? son. 


ὅτε, ὁπότε Q ag πότε, ᾿ When? τότε, ᾿ Thon. 


ἡνίκα. § πηνίκα, τηγίκα, 


ὅθεν, ὁπόθεν, Whence. πόθεν, Whence? τόθεν, Thence. 


How far. How far So far. 
ἢ ᾿ πῷ τῷ ᾿ 


ὅθι, Where. πόθι, Where ? τόθι, There. 

ὅσον, How much. ποσὸν, How much ? Ἰτόσον, So Much. 

οἷον, After what ποῖον, After what |toiov, After that 
Manner. Manner ? Manner. 


ὁσάκις, How often. \nookxis, How often ?jroakxs, So often. 


175 


ADVERBIAL PARTICLES, 


Used only in Composition. 


. Privation, from ἄνευ, without, as ἄνυδρος, 
without water. 

Increase, from ἄγαν, much, as ἄξυλος, 
much wooded. 

Union, from ἅμα, together, as ἄλοχος, a 
consort. 


ἃ or av, signifying ὁ 


The following signify increase : 


ἀρι, from dew, to connect. éou, from ἔρω, to connect. 
Bou, from βοῦς, an ox. ta, AXolic for διά. 

Pou, from βριθὺς, strong. λα, from λίαν, much. 
δα, from δασὺς, thick. ke, (the same.) 


Avg signifies difficulty, as dvotuzéw, to be un- 
happys τι Δα δ. cee) ἐάν 

We and νὴ signify privation, like the Latin ne, 
as νηλεὴς, without pity. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


: | 

Six are Monosyllables: εἰς, ἐκ or ἐξ, ἐν, πρὸ, 
πρὸς, σύν. 

Twelve Dissyllables : ἀμφὶ, ἀνὰ, ἀνεὶ, ἀπὸ, δια, 
ἐπὶ, κατὰ, μετὰ, παρὰ, περὶ, ὑπὲρ, ὑπό. 

In composition, five of these increase the sig- 
nification : εἴς, éx or ἐξ, σύν, περὶ, ὑπὲρ. 

Six sometimes inerease, and sometimes change 
ἀνεὶ, ἀπὸ, διὰ, κατὰ, παρὰ, πρὸς. 

One diminishes: ὑπό. 

One changes: μετὰ. 


CONJUNCTIONS 


are exhibited with the Moods,to which they are 
joined, in the SYNTAX. 


176 


Preliminary Observations on the 


GREEK SYNTAX. 


The following remarks on the general principles of con- 
struction are given previous to the common rules of Syntax, 
for the benefit of the more advanced student. They will be 
found to contain amuch more liberal view of the language, 
than that which is given by resorting to the doctrine of El- 
lipses. 


I. GENITIVE. 


_ Tue Greek language takes a much wider range in its use 
of the genitive case than the Latin. In Greek, words of all 
kinds may be followed by other words in the genitive, when 
the latter class limit and show in what respect the meaning of 
the former is to be taken. 

In the case of Verbs: as ’AOnvaior δὲ, ὡς ποδῶν εἶχον, ἐβοή- 
θεον, “the Athenians brought relief, as they had themselves 
with respect to their feet,” i. e. ‘¢as fast as they could run ;”— 
καλῶς ἔχειν μέθης, “ to have one’s self well with respect to in- 
toxication,” i. e. “ to be pretty drunk ;”’—«¢ ἑκάτερος τὶς εὐνοίας 
ἢ μνήμης ἔχοι, “as each one had himself with respect to favour 
or remembrance,” i. 6. “as each one wished well to a party 
or remembered the past ;”—-sd ἥκειν τοῦ βίου, “ to have come 
on well with respect to the means of subsistence,” i. e. “ to 
be in prosperous circumstances ;”—é7elyso0as ἄρηος, “ to urge 
one’s self on with respect to the fight,” 1. e. “to be eager for 
the fight ;"—drévar τῆς ἐφόδου, “to slacken with respect to 
one’s approach,” i. 6. “to slacken in one’s approach ;”— 
σφάλλεσθαι ἐλπίδος, “ to be deceived with respect to hope,” i.e. 
“to be deceived in one’s hope ;”—xatéaya τῆς κεφαλῆς, “1 
am broken with respect to my head,” i. e. “I have broken my 
head.” 

In the case of Adjectives: as συγγνώμων τῶν ἀνθρωπένων du- 
αρτήματων, “forgiving with respect to human errors ;”—ézar¢ 
ἔρσενος γόνου, “ childless with respect to male offspring ;’— 
τιμῆς ἄτιμος πάσης ἔστω, “ let him be unhonoured with respect 
to all honour,” i. 6. “let all respect be denied him ;”—éyyvs 
τῆς πόλεως, “near with respect to the city,” i.e. “near the 
city ; --ξυνέπεσον ἐς τοῦτο ἀνάγκης, “ they fell into this with 
respect to necessity,” i. e. “ they fell into this necessity ;”— 
ἐς τοσοῦτο μίσους ἦλθον, “they came to so much with respect to 


177 


hatred,” i. 6. “they fell into so much hatred ;’—év τούτῳ πα- 
ρασκευῆς ἦσαν, “they were in this state with respect to prepa- 
ration,” i. 6. “they were in this state of preparation ;"---γῆ 
πλεία κακῶν, «« a land full with respect to evils,” i. e. “ full of 
evils ;"—-dgua κενὸν ἡνίοχου, “a chariot empty with respect to 
a driver,” i. e. “ without a driver ;”—usit{wy πατρὸς, “ greater 
with respect to his father,” i. e. “ greater than his father.” 

The principles to be deduced from all this are easy and 
natural. 

1. That all words which represent a situation er operation 
of the mind which is directed to an olyect, but without affecting 
it, are followed by a genitive; such are the verbs “to re- 
member,” “to forget,” “to concern one’s self about any 
thing,” “to neglect,” “to consider,” “ to reflect,” “to under- 
stand,” “to be desirous of,” &c.; and the adjectives ‘“ expe- 
rienced,” “ ignorant,” “‘ remembering,” “ desirous,” &c. 

2. All words which indicate fulness, to be full, defect, empti- 
ness, &c. are followed by a genitive; because the word which 
expresses of what any thing is full or empty, indicates the 
respect in which the signification of the governing word is 
taken. Under this head fall the adjectives “full,” “rich,” 
“ abounding in,” “ empty,” ‘“ deprived of,” “ destitute of ;” the 
verbs “ to fill,” “ to want,” “to bereave,” “to deliver,” “ to 
desist from,” “to cease from ;” adverbs denoting abundance, 
want, sufficiency, deprivation, &c. 

3. The same original signification of the genitive appears 
to be the basis of the construction of the comparative with the 
genitive: thus μείζων πατρὸς signified, “ greater with respect 
to his father.” From this construction, all words which in- 
volved a comparison, took the object of this comparison in the 
genitive: such are verbs which signify ‘to surpass,” or the 
contrary, “to be surpassed,” “ to be inferior to another ;” as 
περιγίνομαι, ἡττάομαι, &c.; those also which signify “ to rule,” 
or the opposite, together with many verbs which are derived 
from substantives, and are equivalent to the primitive with the 
substantive verb, as κυριεύειν, (κύριος εἶναι) ; ποιρανεῖν, (xolga- 
νος εἶναι); ἄρχειν, (ἄρχων εἶναι) :—such again are adjectives 
and substantives in which the same idea of government is im- 
plied; as ἐγκράτης ἡδονῆς, “ master over pleasure ;” ἥττων 
ἡδονῆς, “a slave to pleasure ;” ἧττα τοῦ πόματος, “ defeat by 
means of drinking,” i. e. “intemperance in drinking ;” ἐγκρά- 
tesa πόνου, * mastery over labour.” ὴ 

To this same head must be referred all words which imply 
a comparison with respect to value, or require a definition of 
value ; as, for example, ἄξιος, which properly signifies “* equi- 

16* 


178 


valent,” “‘ equal in value ;” so that ἄξιον τούτου, which we com- 
monly render ‘‘ worthy of this,” strictly rendered would be, 
“ equal in value with respect to this.” Hence too the adjec- 
tive ἀνάξιος, and the adverbial forms ἀξέως and ἀναξίως take 
the genitive ; and hence, moreover, this case is joined with all 
words in which a determination of value is contained ; as, for 
example, verbs signifying “ to buy,” “ to sell,” “ to exchange,” 
&c. On this is founded the general rule— The price of a 
thing is put in the genitive.” 

And lastly, to this head belong all words which express a 
difference, and in which, of course, a comparison is implied, 
as διάφορος, ἕτερος, ἄλλος, ἄλλοϊος, ἀλλότριος : thus, διάφορον τού- 
του, “ different with respect to this,” i. 6. “ different from this ;” 
ἕτερον τούτου, “ other with respect to this,” i. e. “ other than 
this.” 

4. From the meaning of the genitive “ with respect to,” we 
deduce also the general meaning of the cause of any thing’s 
~-being done, in which case the genitive is to be rendered by 
“on account of.” Thus, with Verbs: darady κεχολωμένοι, 
«« enraged on account of the Greeks,” i. 6. “ with the Greeks ;” 
πενθικῶς ἔχουσα τοῦ ἀδελφοῦ τεθνηκότος, “ melancholy on ac- 
count of the death of her brother ;” φθονεῖν τινί σοφίας, “ to 
envy any one on account of wisdom ;” ὀνειδίσαι τῷ θεῷ, τούτων, 
“to upbraid the god on account of these things.” Hence 
the genitive is found with verbs signifying “to accuse,” “to 
criminate,” with verbs of praying, with verbs of beginning; 
the genitive being that of the person or thing, on account of 
which the accusation is made, the prayer offered up, or the 
affair begun. So too the genitive stands alone in exclama- 
tions, with and without an interjection, or a word that ex- 
presses admiration, indignation, compassion, &c.; as "“πολλον, 
τοῦ χασμήματος, ““ Apollo! what a swallow!” 72) Ζεῦ βασιλεῦ, 
τῆς λεπτότητος τῶν φρενῶν, “O king Jupiter! the acuteness of 
his mind!” Τῆς τύχης, “ the misfortune!” In all the instances 
above enumerated under this head, and in others of a similar 
nature, the Grammarians very unnecessarily supply évexe, or 
some equivalent term. 

Il. The second principal relation which is expressed by the 
genitive, is that of the proportion of a whole to its parts; in 
other words, the genitive is put partitively. This use is com- 
mon to the Greek, the Latin, and other languages, except that 
in Greek it has a much more extensive range. ‘Thus, in the 
latter language the genitive is put with Verbs of all kinds, even 
with those which govern the accusative, when the action does 
not refer to the whole object, but only to a part. This is ex- 


179 


pressed in English by the omission of the article in the singu- 
lar, or by the word “some ;” as, πάσσε δ᾽ ἁλὸς, “he sprinkled 
salt over 11; --ὀπτῆσαι κρεῶν, “to roast sume of the flesh ;” 
ἐγὼ oda τῶν ἐμῶν ἡλικιωτῶν, “1 know some of those of the 
same age with myself ;—dvadeiv τῶν ταιγιῶν τὸν Σωκράτην, 
“to bind Socrates with some of the fillets :᾽"---τῆς γῆς ἔτεμον, 
“they laid waste a part of the land.” On the like principle the 
genitive is put with many other verbs which signify partici- 
pation, or in which at least this idea is implied: such are the 
verbs μετέχειν, κοιγωνεῖν, συλλαμθάνδιν, μέτεστι, προσήκειν, με- 
ταδιδόναν, ἀπολαύειν, Se. 

Upon this principle of the reference to a part, is founded 
the construction by which, with the verbs “to take,” ‘to 
seize,” “to touch,” “to carry,” ὅσο. the part by which any 
thing is taken is put in the genitive, while the whole is put in 
the accusative; as ἐλάδοντο τῆς ζώνης τὸν Ορόντην, “they took 
Orontes by the girdle.”—-The same construction is retained 
also with the verbs which signify the opposite of “to take,” 
or “to seize,” viz. “to let go,” ‘to loose,” “ not to obtain any 
thing,” “to miss,” &c.; as ἀφίεται τοῦ δόρατος, “ he lets go 
the spear ;” whereas ἀφιέναι τὸ δόρυ in the accusative, would 
signify, “he hurls the spear ;” in the first, reference being 
made to a part, in the latter, to the whole. 

Upon this principle also arises the construction of the su- 
perlative with the genitive, the substantive being put in that 
case which marks the class from which the superlative takes 
the chief one as a part. , 

III. ‘The genitive is used also to mark the person or thing 
to which any thing belongs, whether it be a property, or qua- 
lity, habit, duty, &c.; and those also from which any thing 
arises. Probably here also an obscure idea of the relation of 
this quality, duty, &c. to that which possesses it, as of a part 
to the whole, is the basis of the construction. Hence the 
common rules, that “‘verbs denoting possession, property, duty. 
&c. govern the genitive,” and that the “material of which any 
thing is made is put in the genitive.” } 

IV. The genitive is also put with verbs compounded with 
prepositions which govern the genitive, that is to say, when 
these prepositions may be separated from the verb, and placed 
immediately before the case, without altering the signification 
of the verb ; as ἀντιπαρέχειν τέ τινος, for παρέχειν te ἀντί τινος ; 
ἀποπηδᾶν ἅρματος, for πηδᾷν ἀφ᾽ Eouatos; ἐξέρχεσθαι οἰκίας, 
for ἔρχεσθαι ἐξ οἰκίας : not, however, ἀντιλέγειν τινός, “ to 
contradict any one,” for tt; because λέγειν ἀντί τινος, would 
give an entirely different sense, viz. “ to speak in the place 
of any one,” 


180 


V. The genitive serves also to determine place and time, in 
answer to the questions, ‘‘ where ?” “ when?” &c. Hence 
the adverbs οὗ, ποῦ, ὅπου, where ? which are, in fact, old geni- 
tives, and refer to part of general place and of general time. 


2. DATIVE. 


Tur Dative in Greek expresses two senses, one that of the 
Dative in other languages, answering to the question, “ to 
whom ?” and another that of the Latin ablative. 

I. The Dative expresses the distant object of a transitive 
or intransitive action, with reference to which this action takes 
place. It answers thus, in most cases, as in Latin and Eng- 
lish, to the question, “to whom?” as διδόναν τί τινι, “ to give 
any thing to any one ;” πείθεσθαι τινι, “to obey any one.” 
Thus also with adjectives: φίλος τινί, ἐχθρός τινι, εὔνους τινε, 
é&c. A larger proportion of verbs, however, are joined with 
the Dative in Greek than in Latin. 

II. The Greek Dative also supplies the place of the Latin 
Ablative, and in this case expresses the relation of connexion 
or companionship, in answer to the questions, “ with whom ?” 
“with what?” of an instrument or mean in answer to the 
question “ whereby?” of an impulse or excitement, “from 
what ?” of an external cause, “by what means?” “ on what 
account 2?” * for what ?” &c. A ὃ 

III. The Dative expresses the relation of the measure, de- 
gree, &c. with the comparative. Hence the Datives πολλῷ, 
ὀλιγῷ, βραχεῖ, with the comparative. 

IV. It is put in definitions of time and place, in answer to 
the question ‘‘ when ? and where ?” 


3. ACCUSATIVE. 


Tue Accusative, as in other languages, marks the person 
or thing which is affected by the action of the accompanying 
Verb, i. e. which suffers a change of any kind. The Verbs 
which govern an accusative are hence called Verbs active or 
transitive, i. e. which show an action passing on to an object, 
and affecting and determining it inany actual manner. There 
are, however, other verbs not properly transitive, which yet 
govern an accusative in Greek; this is particularly the case 
in those verbs which do not mark the passive object of the 
action, but the object to which the action has only generally 
an immediate reference ; as προσκυνεῖν, δορυφορεῖν, σεθεῖν, φθά- 
ve, ἐπιτροπεύειν, ἐπιλείπειν, &&c. In these and others of a 


181 


similar nature, the construction with the Dative would appear 
to be the most natural one. 

11. Many verbs which signify an emotion, or feeling, with 
regard to an object, as, “ to be ashamed,” “ afraid,” “‘ to com- 
passionate any one,” are accompanied by an accusative, which 
expresses the object, and at the same time the effective cause 
of this emotion ; as, αἰσχύνομαι τὸν Θεόν, “1 revere the Deity,” 
αἰδεῖσθαι τοὺς ἄρχοντας, “to respect rulers ;” ἐποιπτδίρω ver, “1 
compassionate him ;” ὑμᾶς ἐλεῶ, “IT pity you.” The same 
takes place with some neuter verbs which express an emotion, 
although, even without indicating the object, they convey a 

perfect idea; such are ἀλγεῖν, θαῤῥεῖν, ἐπιχαιρεῖν, &c. 

_ Many verbs have the accusative not only of the nearer and 
more immediate objeet of the action, but also of the more 
remote. object of it, 1. 6. the person or thing to which the 
action with its immediate object passes, which in English 
is generally expressed by a dative ; as δὖ or κακῶς ποιεῖν τινά, 
«to do good or harm to any one ;” δὖ or κακῶς λέγειν τινά, “ to 
speak well or ill of any one.” Hence these verbs often take 
two accusatives at the same time: such are ποιδῖν, πράττειν, 
δρᾷν, ἕρδειν, “to do;” λέγειν, εἰπεῖν, dyogsderr, “to speak of, 
or, against ;” ἐρωτᾷν, “to ask,” αἰτεῖν, ἀπαιτδῖν, “to ask,” “ to 
require,” * to desire ;” ἀφαιρεῖσθαι, ἀποστερεῖν, &c. “to take 
away,” “to deprive of a thing ;” διδάσκειν, “ to teach ;” ἐκδῦ- 
σαι, ἐνδῦσαι, “ to put off” or * on,” &c. 

Other uses of the accusative are enumerated under the rules 
of Syntax. 


ae {3 
ς ΔΉ ΟΟΥΚΙΆ 


THE NOMINATIVE AND THE VERB...  - 


The Nominative Case is the subject of the 
Verb; as, re 


᾿Εγὼ δίδωμι, I give. 


1. With regard to the Personal Pronouns as Nominatives, they are 
seldom expressed unless some emphasis isrequired. In other cases also 
the Nominative to the Verb is omitted, where the verb expresses an 
action usually performed by the agent denoted by the nominative; as 
σαλπίζει, the trumpeter gives a signal ; the noun σαλπικτής being implied 


182 


A Verb agrees with its nominative in Number 
and Person ; as, 


Σωκράτης ἔφη, Socrates said. 
᾿Οφθαλμὼ λάμπετον, His two eyes shine. 
Kargdovow ὄρνιθες, Birds sing. + « 


A Neuter plural is generally joined with a Verb 
Singular ; as, 


"Ogee τρέμε, Mountains trembled. 


from the verb. So also ἐκῆρυξε (scil. 5 κήρυξ), the herald made proclama- 
tion. 'This usage also prevails where in English we supply it, and an 
operation of nature or of circumstances is indicated,.as ὕει, it rains ; 
(wid. Syntax of Impersonal Verbs.) Instances, on the other hand, fre- 
quently occur, where the nominative stands without a verb; in these, 
some part of εἶναι 15 generally understood; ἃ5 “Ἑλλην ἐγὼ, Tama Greek, 
supply εἰμί, This is most frequently the case with ἕτοιμος, and with 
-verbals in réov. The most remarkable construction, however, is that 
~ in which the nominative is converted into an accusative, and made to 
depend upon another verb; as οἶδα ce ris et, I know thee who thou art, for 
οἶδα ris ov et, Iknow who thou art. So also ἤδεε yap κατὰ θυμὸν ἀδελφεόν, ὡς 
ἐπονεῖτο, for ὡς ἐπονεῖτο ἀδελφός. Hom. : 

1. Asa Noun of multitude Singular may be followed by a Verb Plu- 
ral, so a Neuter Plural is often taken in a collective sense, and follow- 
ed by a Verb Singular. Thus when Homer says δοῦρα σέσηπε, he means 
the collection α΄ planks and timber, with which the ships were constructed. 

The Plural Noun is sometimes Masculine or Feminine, but it is 
used in a collective sense; as dyetrat ὀμφαὶ μελέων, Pindar; δέδοκται 
τλήμονες φυγαὶ, Euripides.. Heyne has altered the passages in Pindar 
where this construction occurs; but see Herm.-de Metris, p. 246. seqq. 
and also Boeckh’s edition of Pindar, where the common readings are 
defended and retained. The Grammarians call this schema Pindari- 
cum, and, Beotiwm. 

This idiom is more observed by the Attics than by the older writers 
in the Ionic and Doric dialects. The latter often join the neuter plural 
with a plural verb; as, οὔτέ τι νῶϊν ὅρκια ἔσσονται. Il. x’, 200.---ἀμήχανα 
ἔργα γένοντο, ll. ’,310. The scholiasts, in commenting on these passages, 
observe, that they are constructed ἀρχαϊκῶς. The Attics alsosometimes 
join the neuter plural with the plural verb, especially in two cases; 1. 
when the neater plural signifies living persons: 2. when the abstract 


is put for the cgacrete, and animate creatures, not things, are referred 
bate ἃ constructions of neuters plural with singular verbs 


may be fanted for on the principle of the association of ideas: 
neuter ἃ ‘animate objects being considered generally, but animate 
agents individually. 

This construction is not confined to the Greek language. It issfre- 
quent in the Hebrew: see Exodus xxi.4. Job. xii. 7. Isaiah i1, 11. 
Psalm Ixxxiii. 7, &c. In French this mode is common in every Gen- 
der in an Impersonal fori: 11 est des hommes, il est des femmes. But 
the Verb in that case precedes the Nominative, 21 vient de sonner dix 
hewres ; if the Nominative precedes, it has a Verb Plural, dix heures 
viennent de sonner. - 


183 
A Dual Nominative is sometimes joined with 
a verb Plural; as. | 
"Augw λέγουσι Both say. 


SUBSTANTIVE AND SUBSTANTIVE. 
Substantives signifying the same thing agree 
in Case; as, 


Κυαξάρης, 6 παῖς tot’ Aorvéyou, Cyaxares, the son of Asty- 
ages.” 


1. In prose this construction is general, 

In the same manner a Dual Substantive, as it signifies more than 
one, may have an adjective Plural; but the Verb or Adjective can sel- 
dom be of the Dual number, when the Noun implies more than two. 
Buttmann (Ausf. Gr. Gr. vol. 1. p. 135.) makes the Dual to have been 
an old form of the plural, which became gradually restricted to the de- 
noting of two. Hence in the earlier state of the language we do ac- 
tually find the Dual used when more than two are meant. This is 
strongly corroborated by the imitations of later writers, as Aratus, 968; 
Oppian, 1,72. According to Quintilian (1, 5, 42.) some persons in his 
time wished to consider the Latin forms in ere, of the third person plu- 
ral of the perfect, as dual forms in contradistinction to those in eruwnt, 
The attempt did not succeed ; but it serves to show, however, that the 
separate use of a dual form in Greek owed its origin, no doubt, to a 
similar though more successful effort on the part of the early Greek 
Grammarians. 

2. One of the Substantives is frequently understood, when some inti- 
mate and usual relation is expressed, as ᾿Αλέξανδρος 6 Φιλίππου, Alex- 
ander the son of Philip, supply υἱὸς or rats; ᾿Ολυμπιάς ἡ ᾿Αλέξανδρου, 
Olympias the mother of Alexander, supply μήτηρ. So also ὃ Σιωφρονισκου, 
the son of Sophroniscus ; i τοῦ Ἰ'λαύκος (sc. θυγάτηρ, the daughter of 
Glaucus ; εἰς τὴν Φιλίππου (Sc. χώραν), into the land of Philip; τὰ τῆς 


πολεώς (sc. πράγματα), the affairs of the city. The 61110515 of some case of - 


υἷος ΟΥ̓ παῖς is Very common in tracing genealogies, while, on the other 
hand, the omissions of θυγάτηρ is much less frequent. Thus, Ovyarépa 
δὲ αὐτὴν λέγουσι εἶναι Αὐτεσίωνος, rod T ἰσαμενοῦ, τοῦ Θερσάνδρου, τοῦ ΤΠολυνείκεος, 
They say that she was a daughter of Autesion, who was the son of Tisa- 
menes, who was the son of Thersander, who was the son of Polynices. 
Herod. Moreover, as ὃ in the singular refers to υἱὸς or παῖς under- 
stood, so of in the plural indicates an ellipsis of υἱοὶ or παῖδες. Thus, 
οἱ γονέων διασήμων, (86. maides,) the sons of distinguished families. Plut. 
The presence or absence of the article, in these forms of construction, 
makes an important difference in the sense; forexample, Σωκράτης ὃ Dw- 
φρονίσκου, implies that Socrates was either the only son of Sophroniseus, 
or else that he was that Socrates who had Sophroniscus for his father, in 
order to be distinguished from others of the same name, and who were 
the sons of other parents; whereas Σωκράτης Σωφρονίσκου, means that he 
had Sophroniscus for his father and not some one else. Hence this lat- 
ter form is used in pleadings, decrees, &c, wherever a strict and legal 
designation of an individual is required. : 


»-5. 


ἘΞ 


184 


THE SUBSTANTIVE AND THE ADJECTIVE. 


An Adjective agrees with its Substantive in 
Gender, Number, and Case; as, 


*Avdoes ἀγαθοὶ. Good men. 
“Ομιλίαν κακαί, Evil communications. 
᾿Εθνεα.πολλὰς Many nations. 


To this rule belong Articles, Pronominal Adjectives, and 
Participles. 


_ An Adjective of the Masculine Gender is some- 
times found with a Feminine Substantive; as, 


Τὼ γυναῖκε, Xenophon, The two women.? 


1. The Adjective is often found without any substantive with which 
it agrees, the latter having been omitted, or being easy to be supplied 
by the mind. In this case the Adjective is said to be used substantively, 
as ὃ σοφὸς, the wise man, suppl. dvno; ἡ dvidpos, the desert, suppl. γῆ ; οἱ 
πολλοὶ, the multitude, suppl. ἀνθρώποι; τὰ ἐμὰ, my property, suppl. χρήματα. 
So also the Pronouns otros, exetvos, τίς, ὅτε. 

2. The Attic construction is used in order to generalize the sense, as 
Θεὸς and Deus are applied to both sexes for a divine, ἄνθρωπος and hemo, 
for a human, person. Thus ducente Deo in Virgil refers to Venus, and 
αὐτὴν τὴν Θεὸν, in Herodotus, to Minerva. Perhaps also this form is 
adopted to dignify the female sex. On this principle, when a woman 
Ἔσο of herself in the Plural Number, a mode of speech adopted by 
the great, she uses the Masculine Gender: as οἱ προθνήσκοντες, Eurip. 
spoken by Alcestis of herself; κτενοῦμεν, οἶπερ ἐξεφύσαμεν, by Medea; 
παθόντες, ἡμαρτηκοτες, Sophocles, by Antigone. ‘Thus, also, when a cho- 
rus of women speak of themselves. This mode is confined to the Dual 

 ...and Plural. But if a woman speaks of herself in the Singular, she 
“" “ggeuses the Feminine Gender; and also when she speaks of the Female 
race in general: as Kodriora, τὴν εὐθεῖαν (δὸον) ἢ πεφύκαμεν σοφαὶ μάλιστα. 
Eurip. Med. The direct road is the best in which we women are natu- 
rally most skilled. ‘The Coryphea, as the representative of the chorus, 
appears sometimes to have used the masculine gender with the singu- 
lar number, as in Euripides, Hippol. 1107. The Masculine Article is 
joined with a Feminine Noun in the Dual only. 

Compound and Derivative Adjectives in os are considered by the 
Attic writers as of two terminations, consequently used as Feminine 
as well as Masculine. 

Comparatives and Superlatives of three terminations sometimes ex- 
press the Feminine by the Masculine termination: as, ἀπορώτερος ἡ 
λῆψις, Thucydides. Soalso,in the same writer, δυσεμβολώτερος ἡ Aoxpis. 
These comparatives are thus used by Thucydides, because the radical 
adjective of the positive is common or of two terminations. It is, after 
all, however, a very rare construction, since comparatives and super- 
latives of adjectives which are common, or of those which are used as 
common, have usually three terminations. “19 


185 


A Substantive is sometimes used as an Adjec- 
tive; as, 

Τλώσσαν “Ελλάδα ἐδίδαξε, Her. He taught the Greek lan- 
guage.' 


The Substantive is often changed into a Ge- 
nitive Plural, preceded by a Pronoun or Arti- 
cle; as, . 

Οἱ ἀγαθοὶ τῶν ἀνδρῶν, Isocrates, Honourable men.? 


THE ARTICLE. 


The Article is used to mark a distinction or 
emphasis. With the Infinitive it supplies the 
place of Nouns, Gerunds, and Supines. With 
a Participle, it is translated by the Relative and 
Indicative. With μὲν and δὲ it signifies partly, 
and is often used for ornament ; as, 


When the Adjective is put in the Neuter after a different enact, 
χρῆμα is understood; as ὀρθὸν ἡ αληθεία, Soph. Thus triste lupus, - 
lis, Virg. ‘The ellipsis is sometimes supplied, as τέ χρῆμα δράσεις ἡ Soph. 
We must not, however, suppose that χρῆμα, or some equivalent term, 
is always understood: since it frequently happens, that the neuter gen- 
der is used by the writer simply because the thing mentioned has no 
proper predicate, or because one does not immediately suggest itself to 
the mind. vid. Herm. ad Viger. p. 575. to * 

1. So ficus anus, Pliny, An old fig-tree. This combination is com- 
mon in English; thus, sea-water, house-dog. '"Ἑϊλλας m - considered 
as an Adjective used as a Substantive. AY eel 

2. So nigra lanarum nullum colorem bibunt, Plin. : 

This construction is also found, in Attic writers, in the Singu 
τὴν πλείστην τῆς στρατιᾶς, Thuc. 

In the Greek idiom the Genitive of the Personal is used instead of 
the Possessive Pronouns, as τὴν μητέρα pov τιμᾶς, Ken. You honour my 
mother. But the latter are sometimes found with the article, particu- 
larly in the orators, as τὴν ὁμόνοιαν τὴν ὑμετέραν of πολλοὶ μισοῦσι, Isoe. 
But wherever any emphasis is required, the Possessive and not the 
Personal Pronoun must be used. Hence, in the Lord’s prayer, the 
phrase Πάτερ ἡμῶν denotes that God is the father of the whole human 
race; and is equivalent to Father of us (all.) Whereas Πάτερ ἡμέτερε 
would be emphatic, and consequently improper, denoting, our Father, 
and implying that God is the Father of ofly a part of his creatures. 
Most commonly, however, the Possessive is altogether omitted in ideas 
that always stand in necessary connexion, as those of natural relations, 
father, son, friend; hand, foot, &c.; and its place is supplied by the 
Article alone. 

17 


as @ 


186 


Aloxihos ὁ τραγῳδὸς, Alschylus, the tragedian. 
Ta ἔξω, The things without. 

"Ev τῷ φρονεῖν, In wisdom. 

Ὃ ἐρχομένος, He that cometh. 


Τ᾿ ἀνθρώπειον γένος, τῆ μὲν ἀγαθὸν, τῇ δὲ φαύλον, Mankind 
are partly good and partly bad. 

Ἢ νίκη ἡ νικήσασα τὸν κόσμον ἡ πίστις, Faith, the victory 
which overcomes the world. ; 


THE RELATIVE AND THE ARTICLE. 


The Relative often agrees with its Antecedent 
in case, by attraction; as, 


Ἔν ταῖς ἑορταῖς, αἷς ἤγομεν, Aristophanes, Jn the festwals, 
‘which we celebrated.2 


_ The Article is poetically used for the Rela- 
tive; as, 
Πατὴρ, ὃ σ᾽ ἔτρεφε, Hom. Your father who educated you. 


The Article in the Neuter Gender, before a 
Genitive, signifies elliptically possession or rela- 


tio as, 
)δὸς τὰ τῶν ἀνθρώπων διοικεῖ, Isoc. God directs the affairs 


of men? 
τς THE GENITIVE! 


One Substantive governs another, signifying 
adifferent, thing, in the Genitive; as, 


\ the Rélative and the Article have the same origin, as they are 

y used the one for the other, and the Feminine in both is dis- 
shed only by the accent, they are joined under one head. 

2 his is called attraction, as the Antecedent attracts the Relative 
into its case. This Attic form has been imitated in Latin; Si quid 
agas eorum, quorun consuésti, Cicero. 

ThegRelative, in this construction, sometimes precedes the Substan- 
tive; as, σὺν ἦ ἔχεις δυνάμει, Xen. The principle of attraction pervades 
the whole Greek language, and is based upon the association of ideas 
in the mind of the writer. 

3. Sometimes the ellipsis is supplied, as τὰ τῶν Θηβαίων πράγματα κακῶς 
ἔχει, Isoc. SS 

ΜΝ some casesthe relation between the Article and the Noun follow- 
ing is so close, that the distinction of the property and the thing itself 
is scarcely perceptible, asgra τῆς τύχης dferas ἔχει τὰς μεταβολὰς, Fortune 
has sudden revolutions. τὸ ἐμὸν, τὰ ἐμὰ, are Sometimes equivalent 
to ἐγὼ, &c. , bates 

4. The primary signification of the Genitive is the origin, or cause, 
from which a thing proceeds, or possession. ΤῸ these may be traced 


.- , 


187 
Σέλας, ἥλιου, Light of the sun. 


An Adjective in the Neuter Gender, without 
a Substantive, governs the Genitive ; as, 


Τὸ λοιπὸν (μέρος) τῆς ἡμέρας, The rest of the day. 


Adjectives signifying plenty, worth, condemna- 
tion, power, and their contraries ; and those which 
signify an emotion of the mind ; require the Geni- 
tive ;' as, 

"Eoya πλείστου ἄξια, Works worthy of the highest value. 
Τῶν χαλεπῶν ἄπειρος διαδιώση, You shall live without trouble. *~ 


ΤΓυμνάσια μεστὰ ἀνδρῶν, Places of exercise full of men. 
᾿Αναίτιος ἀφροσύνης, Not blameable for imprudence. 


The matter of which a thing is made, and 
also the measure of a thing, are put in the Geni- 
tive ; as, 

Tov δίφρον ἐποίησεν ἰσχυρῶν ξύλων, Xen. He built the cha- 
riot of strong wood.” 

r punishment, difference 
Genitive ; as, 


Cost or value, crime 
or eminence, are put 1n 


most of the uses to which that case is applied. But in construction, it 
must depend either on a Substantive, or a Preposition, expressed or 
understood. (vid, Preliminary remarks on the Greek Syntax.) 

1. To this rule a clause is commonly added which states, that verbals 
compounded with the privative a, also govern the genitive. The truth 
is, however, that in such constructions the genitive is merely the more 
exact definition of the idea contained in the adjective, and is to be ex- 
plained by the general principles of the language; for the privative a, 
cannot well designate either the genitive or any other case. 

2. The genitive of the material is considered by some Grammarians 
as depending on ἐκ or ἀπὸ understood, and an argument in fayour of 
this ellipsis is drawn from the circumstance of ἐκ and ἀπὸ being some- 
times found expressed. In all such passages as these, however, the 
presence of a preposition seems to be required in order to express a 
stronger and more direct reference to the material than could be done 
by the common construction, especially if a passive participle be like- 
wise used; thus, πλοῖα ἐκ τῆς ἀκάνθης ποιευμένα. Herod. θύρη ἐκ μυρέκης πε- 
ποιημένη. Herod. ἕδρα ἐξ ἀδάμαντος τετευγμένα. Theocr. εἵματα ἀπὸ ξύλων πε- 
ποιημένα. Elerod. ‘The true principle on which the genitive of the ma- 
terial depends will be found explained in the Preliminary Remarks. 
Sometimes the dative is used for the genitive, when the material of 
which any thing is made may be considered also as the means se: hich 
it is made; as, αἱ μὲν γὰρ κερἄεσσι τετεύχαται, αἱ δ' ἐλέφαντι, Od. τ΄, BOB. 9 = 


} 
ἤν 


188 


δὸξ ahaa ἡμῖν δραχμῆς, Anacreon, Give him to us for mine 
pence. 

Τράφομαὶ oe μοιχείας, Lysias, 7 accuse you of adultery? 

diagéoay τῶν ἄλλων, Plato, Different from the others. 

“Χάρμα πάντων ἐπάξιον, Pindar, A joy surpassing all. 


Εἰμὶ and γίνομαι, signifying possession, proper- 
ty, or duty, govern the Genitive ; as, 


ἢ " d 
O πιπρασκομένοξς ἕτερου γίνεται, He, who is sold, becomes the 
property of another. 


Part of time is put in the Genitive; as, 
Oigous te καὶ χειμῶνος, Xen. In summer and winter. 


_ Exclamations of grief and surprise are put in 
the Genitive ; as, 
Τῆς μωρίας, Aristoph. What folly !4 


1, The principle on which this construction depends has been ex- 
plained in the Preliminary Remarks. ‘The prepositions ἀντί, with the 
genitive, sometimes accompanies the verbs signifying “‘to eachange,” 
whenever a stronger or more direct reference to the thing or things ex- 
changed is required than can be given by the common construction ; 
thus, κάλλίον ἐστιν ἀντί Ivnrod σώματος ἀθάνατον δόξαν ἀντικαταλλάξασθαι καὶ 
ψυχῆν. Isocr. On the same principle, of a stronger reference, the same 
verbs are used occasionally with πρός and an accusative; as, ἡδονὰς 
πρὸς ἡδονὰς, καὶ λύπας πρὸς λύπας καὶ φόβον. καταλλάττεσθαι. Plato. Instead of 
the genitive the dative also is put; ‘as, ἐναλλάξασα ψόνον φανάτῳ. Eurip. 

2. This genitive is besides often accompanied by other substantives, or 
prepositions, on which it depends; thus, φεύγειν ἐπ᾽ αἰτίᾳ φόνου. 1)6- ᾿ 
mosth. ἐγράψατο (με) τούτων αὐτῶν ἕνεκα. Plut. γράφεσθαί τινα γραφὴν φόνου 
τραὔύματυς. ΖΕΒΟὨ ΙΗ, ἀπογράφεσθαι φόνου δίκην. Antiph. Other verbs of 
accusing, &c. are, on account of the nature of their composition, dif- 
ferently constructed. ‘Those compounded with κατά take the person in 
the genitive, and the crime, or the punishment, in the accusative ; as 
κατηγυρεῖν re τινός : the verb ἐγκαλεῖν has the person in the dative, and 
the crime in the accusative ; as ἐγκαλῶν δ᾽ ἐμοὶ φόνους. Soph. The pu- 
nishment is also sometimes in the genitive, yet seldom any word ex- 
cept Cavarov; as, καὶ θανάτου δὲ οὗτοι κρίνουσι. Ken. avOpdrwv καταψηφισθέν- 
τῶν θανάτου } φυγῆς. Plato. The adjective ἔνοχος, which properly is 
constructed with the dative, sometimes takes the genitive; as, οὐδεὶς 
ἐνοχός ἐστι λειποταξίου οὐδὲ δειλίας, Lys. It takes also the genitive of the 
punishment ; as, ἔνοχοι δεσμοῦ γεγόνασι. Demosth. 

3. This is governed by ἐπὶ, sometimes expressed, as ἐφ᾽ ἡμέρης. Her, 
‘When the Dative is used, it is governed by ἐν understood, and some- 
times expressed ; as, ἐν τῷ ἀὐτῷ θέρει, Thuc. The ellipsis of ἐπὶ is a con- 
venient one for the young student; the philosophical principle, how- 
ever, on which this use of the genitive is founded, seems to be in reality 
the reference to a part of-time. vid. Preliminary Remarks. See also 
the notes to the rule for the genitive absolute. 

4, Οἴμοι is often prefixed, as οἴμοι τῶν κακῶν, Aristoph, i. 6. ἕνεκα. (vid, 


Preliminary Remarks. 


189 
Comparatives are followed by a Genitive; as, 


"Avagylas st Cov οὐκ ἔστι κακὸν, Sophocles, There is no 
greater evil than anarchy.) . 


Partitives, Comparatives, Superlatives, Inter- 
rogatives, and Numerals, govern the Genitive 


Plural; as, “te 


Μόνος βροτῶν, The only one of mortals. 
Οἱ vewtégor ἀνθρώπων, The younger of men. 
Κάλλιστος ποταμῶν, The most beautiful of rivers. 


Verbs signifying the senses, are followed by a 
Genitive, excepting verbs of sight, which require 
the Accusative ; as, 


Τῶν μαρτύρων ἀκηκόατε, Isoc. You have heard the witnesses.” 


1. Most Grammarians make the genitive of comparison depend on 
ἀντὶ or πρό understood. Sometimes these prepositions are expressed ; 
as, μείζονα ἀντὶ τῆς αὐτοῦ πάτρας. Soph. ἀντὶ τοῦ τάχους κρείσσω. Eurip. 
οἷσιν ἡ τυραννὶς πρὸ ἐλευθερίης ἦν ἀσπαστότερον. Herod. In these and other 
similar constructions, however, the preposition will be found to impart 
a foree to the comparison which it would not otherwise possess; and 
hence the reason of its being added. The true principle on which the 
genitive of comparison depends will be found stated in the Preliminary 
Remarks. 

2. Verbs of seeing always govern an Accusative.” Many of the 
others likewise govern an Accusative with the Attic writers. The 
Verb ἀκούω most commonly governs the Accusative of the sound, and 


the Genitive of that which produces it; but neither without exception. 


The use of the Accusative after verbs of seeing, seems to have arisen 
from the circumstance, of the Greeks considering the eye as deriving 


its images from its own operations on the objects presented to it; 


whereas the other senses were supposed to be acted wpon by external 
objects, not to act upon them. When the Attics therefore made other 
verbs than those of sight govern an accusative, they ascribed to them- 
selves, from a feeling of national vanity, a greater refinement in all 
the organs of sense than was supposed to be possessed by their neigh- 
bours, for they placed hearing, &c. on a level with sight, and made the 
former senses as active in their operations on external objects as the 
faculty of vision. 

᾿Ακούω, signifying to hear one’s self called, or simpiy to be called, has 
the construction of Verbs of existence; as ovr’ ἀκουσόμαι xdxos, Soph. 
{t is often used with the Adverbs εὖ, κακῶς, and καλῶς, and followed by 
tro or παρὰ with a Genitive; as κακῶς ἀκούειν ὑπο τῶν πολιτῶν, Isoc. 
Thus Cicero, Est hominis ingenui velle bene audire ab omnibus. So 
Milton, Or hearst thou rather pure etherial stream. Perhaps the con- 
Struction of ἀκούω as a Verb of existence, may be explained on the prin- 


ciple of the Nominative with the Infinilive ; as ἀκούει Σαμαρείτης καὶ δα!» 
ΤῊ 


190 


Ορᾷς οὖν καὶ γυναῖκας ἔξω τοῦ περιβόλου ἐστηκυίας ; (6068, 
Do you see then also females standing without the enclosure ? 


Verbs of beginning, admiring, wanting, remem- 
bering, and the like, with their contraries, govern 
the Genitive ;' as, ! 

"ἄρχετε βωκολικᾶς ἀοιδᾶς, Theocr. Begin the pastoral strain. 
“Zs οὐκ ἂν ἀγάσαιτο τῆς ἀρετῆς Dem. Who would not ad- 
mire virtue ? 

Τὸ ἐρᾷν τῶν σωφρόνων, Asch. To love the discreet. 

᾿Αμέλεις τῶν φιλῶν, Xen. You neglect your friends. 


Verbs derived from Comparatives, or in which 
the idea of Comparison is involved, together 
with many verbs coming from nouns, and equi- 
valent in meaning to the primitive with a verb, 
require the Genitive; as, 

Ἡττᾶσθαι τινος, Xen. To be inferior to any one. 

Ὑστέρησε τῆς μάχης, Xen. He arrived after the battle. 


᾿Ετυράννευξ Κορίνθου, Herod. He was king of Corinth. 
᾿Ελέγετο τούτων ἄρχειν, Xen. He was said to command these 


The Genitive is put with verbs of all kinds, 
even with those which govern an Accusative, 
when the action does not refer to the whole ob- 
ject, but to a part ; as, 

Πάσσε δ᾽ ἁλὸς, Hom. He sprinkled some salt. 

᾿Οπτῆσαι κρεῶν, Hom. To roast some flesh. 

Τῆς γῆς ἔτεμον, Thuc. They laid waste a part of the country. 

ἼἜγω otda τῶν ἐμὼν ἡλικιωτων, Plato. I know some of those 
of the same age as myself. 

A Noun and Participle are put absolute in the 
Genitive ;3 as, 

Ἥλιου teddovtos, Soph. The sun rising. 


μονῶν, He is called a Samaritan and a demoniac ; for ἀκούει αὐτός ὀνομαδέο- 
θαι, or κληθῆναι, Σαμαρείτης καὶ δαιμονῶν, he hears himself named, or called, &c. 
1. For an explanation of this and the two next rules, vid. Prelimi- 
nary Remarks. ἊΣ : 
2. The original force of the Genitive absolute was an expression of 
time. Now, as νυκτός means by night time, so also, ἐμοῦ καθεύδοντος ταῦ- 
ra évévero, means at the time that I slept this happened. If this duration 


191 


ΘΑΤΙΨΈ.::.. 


Adjectives signifying profit, obedience, fitness, 
trust, clearness, facility, and their contraries ; and 


of. time is ascertained by an historical person, the preposition ἐπί is 
often used with these Genitives. Thus ἐπὶ Κύρου βασιλεύοντος, in the reign 
of Cyrus. This construction of the Genitive absolute is adopted not 
only to denote time, but every idea expressed in English by 7/, since, 
because, in that, &c. as θεοῦ διδόντος, if God give ; τούτων οὕτως ἐχόντων, 
since these things are thus circumstanced ; ἐπικειμένων τῶν πολεμίων τῇ πόλει, 
while the enemy besieged the city. 

In certain cases nominatives and accusatives absolute are used. 
With such impersonals as ἔξεστιν, it is permitted, πρέπει, it is becoming, 
&c. the absolute case is always the nominative or accusative of the 
neuter participle; as διὰ τί μένεις, ἐξὸν ἀπιεναι; why dost thow remain, 
when it is lawful to depart? Datives absolute are also used, particu- 
larly in statements of time; as περιίοντι τῷ ἐνιαυτῷ παλιν φαίνουσι φρουρὰν 
ἐπὶ τὴν Ἦλιν, as the year elapsed they make another demonstration against 
Elis. The nominative absolute is of rare occurrence. 

By absolute, with the exception of the nominative, nothing more is 
meant than that the governing word is understood; thus, with the ge- 
nitive ἐπὶ may be understood ; with the dative, σύν, ἐπὶ, ΟΥ̓ wera; with the 
accusative, pera. The nominative absolute, however, which, as in 
English, is the only true absolute case, always supposes its proper verb; 
thus, ἀνοίξαντες τοῦ σώματος πόρους, παλιν γίνεται τὸ rio. When they have open- 
ed the pores of the body, fire is kindled anew. Here ἀνοίξαντες is equiva- 
lent to ὅταν ἀνοίξαντες Got, the same with ἀνοιξῶσι. 

In the use of the Genitive absolute the Greek differs from the Latin. 
For, where the Latin, in the use of the ablative absolute, is obliged, on 
account of the want of a participle in the perfect active, to turn the 
sentence, and to use the perfect participle passive; the Greek, on the 
other hand, whose principal tenses all have their own participles, can 
retain the active construction, and then the participle is referred to the 
subject of the principal proposition; thus, vise lupo diffugerwnt oves (for 


quum lupum vidissent) is in Greek ἰδοῦσαι τὸν λύκον αἱ ὄιες ἀπεῴφυγον, NOL 
ὀφθέντος τοῦ λύκου. Thus, too, ταῦτα ἀκούσας ἤσθη, his auditis, &c. and in 


all similar cases. And this construction is universally admissible, 
when the accompanying action, which is expressed by the participle, 
belongs definitely to the subject of the principal proposition ; whereas 
the passive construction obtains where the action expressed by the par- 
ticiple does not refer, or does not refer entirely, to the subject of the 
principal proposition ; thus, τῶν πολεμίων ὀφθέντων, ἔφυγον οἱ πολῖται, When 
they (not-merely the citizens) saw the enemy, the citizens fled. The cot 

struction with the genitive absolute is used properly, only when the 


action which is expressed by the participle has its peculiar subject, © 


distinct from that of the principal verb. 

1. This case is generally used as the Dative in Latin. It expresses 
the object to which the action 15 directed, or for which it is intended. 
It implies acquisition and loss. ‘It is placed after εἰμὶ, &c. in the sense 
of Ὁ, and after Verbs signifying likeness, agreement, trust, resistance, 
relation, &c. It follows Verbs compounded with ἀντὶ, ἐν, ἐπὶ, παρὰ, πρὸς, 
σὺν, ὑπὸ, It is frequently governed by ἐν, ἐπί, σὺν, or some other Prepo- 
sition, understood. (vid, Preliminary Remarks.) 

* 


n= 


192 


those compounded with σὺν and éuov, govern the 
Dative ; as, | 

“Ἡμῖν ἔσται χρήσιμον, It will be useful to us. 

“Συντρόφος τῇ ἁπλότητι, Accustomed to simplicity 

᾿Ελευθέρῳ ἀνδρὶ εὐκτὸν, to be wished for by a liberal man. 


The instrument and manner of an action are put 
in the Dative ; as, 
+ 


᾿Αργυρέαις λόγχαισι μάχου, καὶ πάντα κρατήσεις, Oracle to 
Philip, Fight with silver weapons, and you will conquer the 
world. 4 

“Hiace ξίφει καὶ ἔπεφνε δόλῳ, Hom. He struck him with a 
sword, and killed him by stratagem.” 


Verbs of serving, giving, rejoicing, obeying, 
trusting, fighting, and the like, with their contra- 
ries, govern the Dative; as 


Βοηθεῖν τῆ πατρίδι, To help his country. 

Εἴκειν κάκοις, To yield to misfortunes. 

Mézeobut τοῖς πολεμίοις, To fight against enemies. 
Πᾶς ἀνὴρ αὑτῷ πόνει, Every man labours for himself. 


Verbs signifying to accompany or follow, to 
blame, to converse, to pray, to use, are followed 
by a Dative ; as, 

Τῷ vies ἕποντο, Hom. Him ships followed. 

τ Πιστοὺς ἡγοῦ τοὺς τοῖς ἁμαρτανομένοις ἐπιτιμῶντας, Plutarch. 
μι those faithful, who reprove your faults. 

Σοφοῖς ὁμιλῶν, καύτος ἐκθήσει σοφὸς, Menander. Associating 
with the wise, you yourself will also become wise. 

Εὔχεσθαι Att, To pray to God. 

ΤΠροθάτοις χρῆσθαι, Xen. To use sheep. 


© 1 This case in these instances may be called the Ablative, and the 

᾿ς analogy with the Latin will be preserved. 

~ 2. Instead of the Dative, the Prepositions διὰ, ἐν, ἐπὶ, κατὰ, are some- 
times used with their proper cases; as ἐπαίρεσθαι ἐπὶ πλούτῳ, Xen. ἐν βέλει 
πληγεὶς, Eurip. 

To this rule may be referred the excess or deficiency of measure, as 
ἀνθρώπων μακρῷ ἄριστος, Her. The measure of excess issometimes found 
in the Accusative, especially inthe old Poets; as πατρὸς πολλὸν ἀμείνων, 
much braver than his father. 

3. Many Verbs have a Dative of the person, and a Genitive of the 
thing; as ἀμφισβητῶ, xowwvéw, μεταδίδωμι, πετέχω, συγγινώσκω, φθονῶ; and 


193 

Εἰμὶ, put for ἔχω, to have, governs the Da- 
tive ; as, 

“Ὅσοις οὐκ ἣν ἄλφιτα, As many as had not bread. 

An Impersonal Verb governs the Dative ; as, 

"Ekeote μοι ἀπιέναι. It is lawful for me to go away. 

Some Passive Verbs have the Dative of the 
agent after them ; as, 

Tb μέγεθος ἐκεινῷ τῶν πεπραγμένων, the greatness of his ac- 
tions. 

Poetical writers, for the Genitive, frequently 
use the Dative ; as, 

Οὐκ ᾿““γαμέμνονι ἤνδανε θυμῷ, It did not please the mind of 


Agamemnon. 


Neuter Adjectives in téov, govern the Person 
in the Dative, and the Thing in the case of the 
Verb, from which they are derived ; as, 


Ti ἂν αὐτῷ ποιητέον δἴδν, Xen. What must he do? 
“Ὑμῖν ταῦτα πρακτέον, Dem. You must do these things.? 


the Impersonals δεῖ, μέλει, μεταμέλει, μέτεστι, προσήκει; aS ὧν ἐγώ σοι od 
φθονήσω, Ken, σοι παιδῶν τί δεῖ, Hurip. Χρὴ, πρέπει, and δεῖ, it behoveth, 
govern the Accusative with the Infinitive, according to the language 
of the Grammarians; and det and χρὴ, signifying necessity or want, 
ruse μέλει, ὅσα. govern the Dative of the person and the Genitive of 
the thing. 

1. Perhaps the only true Impersonals are those where we supply zt, 
and some operation of nature or of circumstances is denoted ; as ὅει, 
it rains. ‘The Verbs commonly called Impersonal, are so only in 
name, for they have an actual subject, which is expressed either by an ies 
Infinitive or other dependent clause. Thus, in the example under the, Ὁ 
rule, the Nominative to ἔξεστε is the infinitive ἀπιέναι, and the passage 
is equivalent to ro ἀπιέναι ἔξεστί μοι, the going away is lawful to me, So 
also, dei ὑμᾶς τυῦτο ποιεῖν,  behoves you to do this, is the same as, the 
doing this 1s incumbent upon you x 

2. These Adjectives imply necessity, and have in the neuter the force 
of the Latin Gerund. The whole construction has been imitated in 
Latin: Quam viam nobis quoque ingrediendum sit, Cic. Alternas 
quoniam penas in morte timendum, Lucretius. 7 

Verbals in τέος correspond to the Future Participle Passive in La- 
tin; as, ποιητέος, faciendus, ποτέος, bibendus. These also have the Per- 
son in the Dative, like those in réov, but agree with the Noun, express- 
ing the thing, in Gender, Number, and Case; as ταῦτα ὑμῖν ποιητέα ἐστί͵ 
hac vobis facienda sunt, This form in réa is more common in Attic 


194 


Substantives sometimes have a Dative after 
them; as, 
"And τῆς ἑκάστῳ διανέμησεως, From the distribution to each. 


Nouns signifying the time or place in which a 
person or thing exists, are put in the Dative ; as, 


Τὴ γῆ, In the earth, 

"Μαραθῶνι, At Marathon. 
᾿“θήναις, At Athens. 

«Αὐτῆ τῇ ἡμέρα, On the same day. 


“Ὁ αὐτὸς, the same, is followed by a Dative; as, 


Τῆς αὐτῆς εἰσὶ ζημίας ἄξιοι of συγκρύπτοντες τοῖς ἐξαμαρτά- 
vovor, Isoc. Those who conceal, are deserving of the same 
punishment as those who commit, a fault. 


ACCUSATIVE? 


Verbs signifying actively govern the Accusa- 
tive ; as, ᾿ 
Κυλίνδει τὴν σφαῖραν, He rolls the ϑαϊ].5 


The Accusative is of universal use, with χατὰ 
understood ;' as, 


> 


than réov. Sometimes, however, the person is put in the accusative, 
when the verbal loses a portion of its strong reference to what must be 
done, and approximates in meaning to the impersonal δεῖ with the infini- 
tive, denoting what ought to be done; as, Οὐδενὶ τρόπῳ φαμὲν ἑκόντας ddi- 
κητέον εἶναι; Plato: the same as οὐδενὶ τρόπῳ φαμὲν (ἡμας) δεῖν ἑκόντας ἀδικεῖν; 
Do we assert that we ought in no way voluntarily to commit injustice? 
‘The two constructions are united in Plat. Rep. 5, p. 12. Ed. Bip. οὐκοῦν 
καὶ ἡμῖν νευστέον----ἐλπίζοντας. 

1. Σὺν is here understood. Thus in Latin, Idem facit occidenti, Hor. 
Et nunc ille eadem nobis juratus in arma, Ovid. 

2. The Accusative expresses the object of the action. It is, therefore, 
as in Latin, governed either by a Verb Active, or by a Preposition ex- 
pressed or understood. 

As in Latin, Verbs of entreating, concealing, and teaching, govern 
twoAcc. Verbs Neuter also often assume an Active signification; and 
both are followed by an Acc. of their own signification. 

The Accusative seems to be the favourite Case of the Atties, who 
frequently use it for the Genitive and the Dative. 

3. A peculiar idiom frequently occurs in Greek, in which, what 
should regularly be the Nominative is found in the Accusative, govern- 
ed by the Verb; as otda σὲ τίς ei, J tnow thee who thow art, for οἶδα ris οὐ 
εἶ, 1 know who thou art. This is sometimes :mitated in Latin. 

4, Or διὰ, εἰς, περὶ, πρός. Kara is the most general, as it embraces the 


195 


“Ιεινὸς μάχην, ZEschylus. Terrible in fight. | 

Πειρῶ τὸ μὲν σῶμα sivar φιλόπονος, τὴν δὲ ψυχὴν φιλοσόφος, 
(soc. Endeavour to be in body fond of labour, and in mind a 
lover of wisdom. 

Verbs of sense, with the Attics, generally go- 
vern an Accusative ; as, 


"Axoiw ταῦτα, I hear these things. 


Verbs signifying to do or speak well or ill, to 
give or take away, to admonish, to clothe or un- 
clothe, etc. govern an Accusative of the Person, 
and another of the Thing ;? as, 

Πολλά ἀγαθὰ τὴν πόλιν ἐποίησε, Isoc. He conferred many 
services on the city.? 

Evgyaouar κακὰ τὸν οἶκον, Thuc. I have done evil to the 
house. 

᾿Αποστερεῖ us τὰ χρήματα, Isoc. He deprives me of my pro- 

erty. 
ματα us ἐξέδυσαν, Hom. They stripped me of my clothes." 


Distance and space are put in the Accusa- 
tive; as, 

Ἔφεσος ἀπέχει ἀπὸ Σ᾽ αρδέων τριῶν ἡμερῶν ὁδὸν, Xen. LEphe- 
sus 15 distant from Sardis three days’ journey.® 


parts, qualities, and relations ; διὰ is applied to the cause ; εἷς, περὶ, and 
πρός, to motion. They are sometimes expressed ; as ὃς κατὰ σῶμα καλὸς, 
κατὰ νοῦν δ᾽ αὖ ἐστὶν ἄμορφος, Epigr. 

The Accusative sometimes appears in the beginning of a sentence, 
without a regimen expressed; as τοὺς ᾿Εἰλλήνας οὐδὲν σαφὲς λέγεται, Xen. 
Quod spectat ad. 

1. This construction is frequent in Latin poetry: Crinem soluta, 
Virg. Humeros amictus, Hor. 

2. One of these Accusatives is governed by κατὰ understood. 

3. To the Accusative of the thing are frequently joined the Adverbs 
εὖ, καλῶς, κακῶς, instead of καλὰ, κακὰ, ἕο. ‘The Verb alone, implying 
treatment, may have the same construction; as Ζεὺς pe ταῦτ᾽ ἔδρασεν, 
Aristoph. 

4. Verbs of adjuring and swearing are also found with two Accusa- 
tives ; as, ὀρκίζω σε οὐρανὸν, Orpheus. ‘Thus in Latin, Hec eadem Ter- 
ram, Mare, Sidera juro, Virg. 

A change of Voice implies a change in the Case of the Person; but 
the case of the Thing is preserved; as ἡμεῖς πλειστὰ εὐεργετοῦμεθα, Ken, 
θοιμάτιον ἐκδυομένος, Dem. Thus in Latin, Induitur faciem cultwmque 
Diane, Ovid. Inscripti nomina regum, Virg. 

5. The Accusative of Distance and Space, and that of Time, are 
both governed by a Preposition understood. 


196. 


Continuance of time is put in the Accusa- 
tive; as, 
"Ἔμεινεν ἡμέρας τρεῖς, He abode three days. 


VERBS PASSIVE. 


Verbs of a Passive signification are followed 
by a Genitive governed by ὑπὸ or πρός, by ἀπὸ 
rarely ;' as, 


<0 νοῦς ὑπὸ οἴνου διαφθείρεται, Isoc. The understanding is 
empaired by wine, 


> 


INFINITIVE. 


One Verb governs another in the Infinitive ; 
as, 

Θέλω λέγειν, I wish to speak. 

The infinitive is often used to signify what is 
expressed in Latin by ad and the gerund, or by 
the participle in dus ; as, 

"Εδωκεν αὐτὸ δούλῳ φορῆσαι. He gave it to a slave to carry. 

Ὃ ἄνθρωπος πέφυκε φιλεῖν. Man was formed to love. 


Παρέχω ἐμαυτόν ἐρωτᾶν. 7 present myself to be questioned. 
*HilGov ἰδεῖν oe. 7 came to see you. 


The infinitive is governed by an adjective (or 
substantive) expressing fitness or qualification; as, 


᾿Επιτήδειος ποιεῖν τι. Fit to do any thing. 
Οὐ δευνός λέγειν. Not powerful in speaking. 


Whenever an infinitive, qualifying the preced- 
ing phrase or clause, does not admit of a suffici- 
ently obvious construction, particularly in con- 


1. Frequently, however, the Dative is appended to passive verbs, 
with or without t7é,-especially to the perfect passive of verbs whose 
perfect active is not much used; as, ταῦτα λέλεκται ἡμῖν, for λέλεχα ταῦ- 
ra. Some Verbs, which in the Active are followed by the Genitive or 
Dative of the person, and the Accusative of the thing, are preceded in 
‘the Passive by the Nominative of the person; as οἱ τῶν ᾿Αθηναιῶν ἐπιτε- 
τραμμένοι φυλακὴν, Thuc. They who were intrusted with the defence of 
the Athenians, or they to whom the defence of the Athenians was intrusted. 
Thus, Levo suspensi loculos, tabulamque lacerto, Hor. 


197 


sequence of other words being interposed, it is 
commonly introduced by wove or ὡς ; as, 

*Hy δὲ πεπαιδευμένος οὕτως, ὥστε πάνυ ῥᾳδίως ἔχειν ἀρκοῦντα 
He was so brought up as very easily to have what sufficed him. 


The infinitive is used as a neuter substantive, 
not only singly, but in connexion with phrases, 
provided with an article, and subject to all the 
constructions of nouns; as, 


Τὸ φυλάξαι τἀγαθὰ τοῦ κτήσασθαν χαλεπώτερον, To preserve 
property is harder than to acquire it. 

Τὸ μὲν οὖν ἐπίορκον καλεῖν τινα, ἄνευ τοῦ τὰ πεπραγμένα δεικ- 
rivat, λοιδορία ἐστίν. To call one perjured, without showing his 
deeds, ts carumny. ". 

The infinitive mood has an accusative before 
it; as, 

Dace τὸν Οὐρανὸν δυναστεῦσαι τοῦ παντός. They say that 
Uranus ruled over the universe. 

The infinitive mood has a nominative before 
it when the reference is to, the same person im- 
plied by the nominative of the preceding verb ; 
and in this construction the nominative before 
the infinitive is omitted, except when an empha- 
sis 1s laid upon it; as,’ 

"Ey εἶναι στρατηγός. He said that he was a general, (αὐτὸς 
understood before εἶναι.) 

"Egy αὐτὸς elvar στρατηγύς, οὐκ sxelvovs. He said that he 
himself was a general, not they. 


1. Sometimes a participle takes the place of the infinitive; see an 
explanation of this construction in the notes upon the syntax of the 
participle. 

2. The principle of the construction of a nominative with the infini- 
tive, whenever there is no change of person, is deserving of the stu- 
dent’s attentive consideration, and will afford a key to the grammatical 
resolution of many phrases and forms of construction which would 
otherwise be unintelligible. The Latin poets imitate this construction ; 
thus, Rettultt Ajax esse Jovis pronepos. Ovid. Uxor invicti Jovis esse 
nescis. Horat. . Vir bonus et sapiens dignis ait esse paratus. Id. Some- 
times even without the infinitive; as, Sensit medios delapsus in hostes. 
Virg. The Latin prose writers, however, always use the strict gram- 
matical form, viz. the accusative with the pronoun se. The construc- 
tion of a nominative with the infinitive may be referred to the general 
principle of Attraction, or, in other words, to the association of ideas. , 

18 


ΠΝ ee στ ΠΣ ΨΥ Pace e eet ΘῚ 


᾿Ενομίξοντο οὐδ᾽ αὐτοὶ σωθήσεσθαι. They thought that they 
themselves would not be saved. ῖ 


Instead of the Infinitive preceded by the Ac- 
cusative, the Indicative preceded by ὅτι or ὡς. is 
commonly used; as, 


Tv Ge ὅτι ἐγὼ ἀληθῆ λέγω, Xen. Know that I speak truth. 
Aéyw ὡς ἐκεῖνος οὐ πολεμεῖ, Dem. 1 say that he does not make 


2 
war. . 


The Infinitive of the Present, Future, and 


Ἱ, “Ὅτι and ὡς are really Pronouns; the former the Neuter of ὅστις, 
firts; the latter the same as ὃς, ἴῃ an Adverbial form. This will clearly 
explain the construction : γνῶθι ὅτι, know that ; ἐγὼ ἀληθὴ λέγω, 1 speak 
truth. Aéyw ὡς, I say that or thus; ἐκεῖνος οὐ πολεμεῖ, he does not make 
war. So, And they told him that Jesus passeth by. Luke 18. It is not 
necessary that ris should be always joined with és. We find in Homer, 
Τὶ γνώσκων 6 οἱ αὐτὸς ὑπειρεχε χεῖρας ᾿Απόλλων:; 1, 6. Γιγνώσκων 6, Knowing 
this: Apollo stretched his hand over him. 

“Or: is sometimes used at the end of a sentence, in a manner which 
strongly elucidates this explanation ; ἀλλ᾽ οὐκ ἀποδώσεις, οἵδ᾽ ὅτι, Aristoph. 
But. you will not restore it, 1 know that. 

Sometimes ὅτι is added to strengthen the force of another Pronoun ; 
a practice common to the best Greek and Latin writers: ἀλλ᾽ οὖν ἔγωγ᾽ 
οὐ παύσομαι, τοῦτ ἴσθ᾽ ὅτι, Aristoph. Hoc ipsum scias. 
᾿ς The Greeks in narrations frequently use the Present Tense, when 
ὅτι introduces the words of the person who is the subject of the narra- 
tive. “Or:,in such constructions, may either be rendered “ @s follows,” 
or, what is far preferable, may be regarded as equivalent to the invert- 
ed commas in English, and remain consequently untranslated. But 
the Latins, in the idiom of the Accusative and Infinitive, place the 
Verb in the Perfect Tense. 

“Ore sometimes signifies thal, or to the end that. In this sense the 
Latin wi, generally shortened into wt, is the same word. Here it is 
still the Pronoun, and the full expression is διὰ ὅτι, for that, for this. 
The two words often coalesce, and become διότι. ‘Thus Shakspeare, 
For that Iam some twelve or fourteen moonshines lag of a brother. 

Sometimes ὅτι signifies elliptically what is the reason that—; as εἴποι 
ὅτι récoov ἐχώσατο Φοῖβος ᾿Απόλλων, Hom. Here the full expression is 
εἴποι τί ἐστιν αἴτιον 6r1—let him say what 15 the reason for this, Phebus is 
so enraged ; ΟΥ̓ διὰ ὅτι. 

It is hkewise frequently used for because, and is there too governed by 
διὰ, for this reason. , 

These observations will easily suggest an analogical solution of the 
origin and use of the word in other languages. 

2. This construction has seldom been imitated in Latin. But ὅτι has 
been rendered by guéd, quia, and even guoniam, in the Vulgate, a trans- 
lation which disgusted the classical reader, and which was succeeded 
by the more elegant yersions of Beza and of Castalio. Yet we find 
some instances of that use of qudd. Equidem scio jam filius quod amet 
meus, Ter. Praemoneo, nunquam scripta quod illa legat, Ovid. 


199 


Aorists, preceded by the Verb μελλω, expresses 
the Future ;_as, | 
Méliw τεθνάναι, Plato, 1 am about to die. 


The Infinitive of some Verbs is preceded by 
ἔχω, in the sense of δύναμαι ; as, 
Μηδὲν ἔχουσιν sinsiv, Dem. “ They have nothing to say.) 


The Infinitive is often governed by another 
Verb in an Imperative sense, understood ; as, 


Μήτε avy? ἀθανάτοισι μάχεσθαι, Hom. (69%, beware, or ϑέλε, 
wish, und.) Nor contend thou with the immortals.” 


The Infinitive is sometimes put absolutely, 
without another Verb expressed; as, 


“Ως ἁπλῶς εἰπεῖν, Dem. To speak plamly. 
Aoxsiv ἐμοὶ, Soph. As it appears to me.? 
Μικροῦ δεῖν, Isoc. Nearly.* 


PARTICIPLE. 
The Infinitive is often elegantly preceded by 


1. Thus, De Diis neque ut sint, neque ut non sint, habeo dicere, Cic. 

2. Thus in Italian, non dir niente, take care to say nothing. Matthie, 
Gr. Gr. vol. 2. p. 284, considers it probable that this usage of the Infi- 
nitive was a remnant of the ancient simplicity of the language, from 
which the action required was expressed by means of the Verb absolute, 
or the Mood of the Verb which of itself indicated the action, without 
any reference to other parts of speech. : 

3. When a particle is joined to the Infinitive with the meaning of 
after, when, defo, until, &c. there is supposed to be an ellipsis of συμ- 
βαίνει, ΟΥ̓ συνέβη, OF συμβαίη, ΟΥ̓ συμβῇ, (according as the context requires 
a Present ora Past Tense, the Optative or Subjunctive Mood). When, 
however, the particle has the meaning of as or so, then ἔξεστι, det, εἰκὸς 
ἐστὶ, or Something equivalent, is supposed to be understood : thus, ὡς ἁπλῶς 
εἰπεῖν, iS for ὡς ἔξεστι ἁπλῶς εἰπεῖν, (as far as it is permitted) to speak plain- 
ly. So also, ὡς ἰδεῖν αὐτὸν, when he saw him, for ὡς συνέβη ἰδεῖν αὐτὸν, when 
(it happened that) he saw him ; πρὶν ἀλέκτορα φωνῆσαι, before the cock crew, 
for πρὶν συνέβη, &c. before (it happened that) the cock crew. 

4. The Infinitive is sometimes understood ; as ὀλίγου παρεδόθη, Lysias, 
(δεῖν und.): cvvédovt1, Dem. (φράσαι. und.) 

5. The distinction between the participle and the infinitive forms one 
of the most important parts of the Greek syntax.—lIf a verb is goyern- 
ed by another verb, or by an adjective, a double relation is established, 
according to which the use of the infinitive or participle is determined. 
1. Either the leading verb or adjective conveys in itself a perfect and 
independent idea; or, 2. it has no perfect idea, but expresses an action 
which first becomes perfect by the addition of its reference. ‘Thus the 
verbs, I pray, I persuade, I will, &c. always require an addition which 


ἜΑ ΤΥ aC! a eee ee ee ee ee ee .- ΔῊ ἢ. τ ὉΠ 


200 


the verbs εἰμὲ, γίνομαι, φαίνομαι, ὑπάρχω, ἔχω, 
χύρω : as, 


expresses, for what I pray, to what I persuade any one, what I will. 
Now, when such an imperfect verb or adjective refers to a verb, this 
reference expresses either the consequence in view, the end, or else 
merely the object of the first verb or adjective. ‘Thus, in the phrases, 
Iwill write, I command you to write, I admonish you to go, &c. the Eng- 
lish infinitive is the consequence in view of the first verb, and is, in 
most cases, expressed in Latin by wt. On the contrary, in the phrases 
I saw him fall, I heard him say, scio me esse mortalem, tntelligo me errasse, 
the infinitive is merely the object, not the end, of the verbs fo see, hear, 
know, perceive. Upon these premises are founded the following rules: 

Rule 1. When an imperfect verb or adjective is followed by a verb 
which expresses ὦ thing to be done, the latter in Greek is put in the in- 
finitive without a conjunction. Thus, δέομαι cov ἐλθεῖν, I entreat thee to 
come ; παραινῶ σοι γράφειν, I exhort thee to write; ἔπεισεν ine πορεύεσθαι, he 
persuaded me to go; ἐμώλυσεν pe γράφειν, he prevented me from writing. 
Thus the infinitive sometimes answers to the infinitive in Latin after 
the verbs nolo, cwpio, conor, audeo, &c. when the subject of the two 
actions is the same, and sometimes to the conjunctions, wt, ne, quominus ; 
as, oro te ut ventas, hortor te wt scribas, persuasit mihi ut proficiscerer, 
impedivit me quominus scriberem. ‘To the rule in Greek, however, ἐπι- 
μελεῖσθαι constitutes a regular exception, being followed by ὅπως with 
the finite verb. 

Rule 2. When an imperfect verb is accompanied by another, which 
marks merely the object of the former, the latter is put in the partici- 
ple, sometimes where in Latin also the participle is used, as video te 
scribentem, audio te docentem, δρῶ ce γράφοντα, ἀκούω σε διδάσκοντα ; and 
sometimes after verbs, which indicate a perception by means of the 
external senses, or the understanding, where in Latin the accusative 
with the infinitive is used; as scio me esse mortalem, sentio te iratwm. 
esse, ὅσο. οἶδα θνητὸς ὦν, αἰσθάνομαι σε χαλεπαίνοντα. 

The distinction of the construction with the infinitive, and with the 
participle, is most clearly shown, when the same verb takes, according 
to its different senses, sometimes one, sometimes the other, mood; thus 
μανθάνειν, Lo perceive, has the participle, as, ἵνα μάθῃ σοφιστὴς ὧν rod Διὸς 
νωθέστερος, Auschyl. that he may perceive that he is a more dull contriver 
than Jove ; whereas μανθάνειν, to learn, has the infinitive, as μαθήσονται 
ἐναντιοῦσθαι. Xen. they will learn to oppose. Thus too, γιγνώσκειν, to per- 
ceive, has the participle, but to learn, the infinitive. It must be remem- 
bered, however, that the verbs, to say, to announce, constitute a regular 
exception to this rule, as well as, to mean, to think, to hope, which last 
take the infinitive, the former also ὅτι with the finite verb. 

1. The Participle is sometimes used alone, εἰμὶ being understood ; 
aS μήῆκων κάρη βάλεν, fir’ ive κήκω βριθομένη (ἐστὶ und.) Hom. A poppy bends 
the head, which in a garden is weighed down. This ellipsis is found in 
Latin, not only in the Poets, but in the Historians, particularly in 'Ta- 
citus. To this construction may be generally referred what is called 
the Nominative absolute. Thus φύλαξ ἐλέγχων φύλακα, Soph. (ἦν und.) 
Sentinel was blaming sentinel. σωθεὶς δὲ, παῖδας ἐξ ἐμῆς δμοσπόρου κτησάμενος, 
(of und.) Eurip. 

The Participle of εἰμὶ is often understood; as of ἐν τέλει, (ὄντες und.) 
Thuc. Those who are in power. Ta πρὸς ποσὶ, (ὄντα und.) Soph. The 
things present. 


201 


“Χάρις χάριν ἐστὶν τίκτουσ' ἀεὶ, Soph. A kindness always 
produces a kindness.1 

Οὐκ ἐχθρὸς ὑπῆρχεν ὧν, Dem. He was not an enemy. 

Tov λόγον cov ϑαυμάσας ἔχω, Plato. I have admired your 
speech,” 


With a Participle τυγχάνω signifies by chance ; 
λανθάνω, privately or ignorantly ; φθάνω, pre- 
viously ; as, 

"Eon τυχεῖν ἐὼν, Her. He said that he chanced to be. 
᾿Ελάθομεν διαφέροντες, Plato. We were not aware that we 
differed.4 

Φθάνω τοὺς φίλους evsgystoy, Xen. I anticipate my friends 
in conferring benefits. 


The Participle is used after δῆλος, φανερὸς, 
ἀφανὴς, ὅζο. ; 


«Αὐτὸς τοῦτο ποιῶν φανερὸς ἦν, Arist. He manifestly did this.5 


1. Thus εἰμὶ is used as an auxiliary with Participles; as τεθνηκότες 
εἶεν, Thuc. ἔστω φιληθεῖς, Eurip. μεταπεμπομένοι ἦσαν, Thuc. rerdnéres εἰμὲν, 
Hom. 

2. This is imitated in the Latin Participle Passive, Neque ea res fal- 
sum me habuit, Sallust. Similar to this are the French and English 
idioms. 

3. The primitive meaning of φθάνω is, to get beforehand, to be before- 
hand with, to anticipate. Among the many peculiar phrases in which 
it bears a part, the following may be enumerated as the most remark- 
able. In all of them the primitive force of φθάνω may be easily traced. 
Thus, ἔφθησαν πολλῷ οἱ Σικύθαι rods [lépcas ἐπὶ τὴν γέφυραν ἀπικόμενοι, Herod. 
The Scythians came to the bridge long before the Persians, Φθάνειν εἰς πό- 
Aw. Xen. To reach the city first. Οὐ γὰρ ἔφθη pot συμβᾶσα ἡ ἀτυχία και 
εὐθὺς ἐπεχείρησαν κι τ. Δ. Scarcely had misfortune befallen me, than they 
immediately attempted, &c. Οὐ γὰρ φθάνουσι παρὰ ἄνδρα ἀπικνεύμεναι, καὶ ἐν 
γαστρὶ ἴσχουσι, Hippoc. For they no sooner come to the men than they 
conceive ; properly, coming to, &c. they are not beforehand with what I 
am going to mention, viz. they conceive. Οὐκ ἂν φθάνοις ποιῶν τοῦτο, 
Eurip. You cannot be too quick vm doing this, or, do it immediately. "Tor 
γὰρ φυτεύων παῖδας οὐκ ἔτ᾽ ἂν φθάνοις. Eurip. Do not therefore any longer 
defer raising a family. Οὐκ ἂν φθάνοις περαίνων. Plato. Quickly finish. 
Οὐ φθάνοιτ᾽ ἔτ᾽ ἂν θνήσκοντες, Eurip. for οὐ φθάνοιτε ἄλλο τι πάσχοντες πρὶν ἢ 
θνήσκειν, you will quickly die. The sense of φθάνω underwent, however, 
a change in writers of a late epoch; thus in Ptolemeeus de Judic. Facul- 
tate, p. 5. φθάνει means extends ; and in the Analecta, 2. p. 155. we have 
ὑπὸ χεύματος ἐφθάνετο, he was snatched away by the stream, i. 6. before he 
could help himself. 

4. Thus in Latin, Nec vixit malé qui natus moriensque fefellit, Hor. 

5. This is more elegant than αὐτὸς τοῦτο ποιῶν φανερῶς ἦν, or than αὐτὸν 
τοῦτο ποιεῖν φανερὸν ἦν, OF than ὅτι αὐτὸς τοῦτο ἐποίει φανερὸν ἦν. 

κ᾿ 


202 


The Participle is used instead of the Infini- 
tive, after Verbs signifying to persevere, to desist, 
to perceive, to show, or an affection of the mind ; 
as, 

Thy εἰρήνην ἄγοντες διατελοῦσιν, Isoc. They continue pre- 
serving peace. 

Θεὸν οὐ λήξω προστάτην ἔχων, Soph. I shall not cease having 
God for my defender. 

"IoOc ἀφιγμένη, Aristoph. Know that thou art come 

4iEw σοφὸς γεγὼς, Eurip. TI shall show that I am wise. 

“Μέμνησο ἄνθρωπος ὧν, Simonides.. Remember that you are 
a man.: | 

°O Θεὸς πολλάκις χαίρει τοὺς μὲν μικροὺς μεγάλους ποιῶν τοὺς 
δὲ μεγάλους μικροὺς, Xen. God is often delighted in making 
the. little great, and the great little.? 


ADVERBS 


are followed by the Genitive, Dative, or Accu- 
sative ;> either because they were originally 
Nouns, or because those cases are governed by 
a Preposition understood.’ 


1. The principle on which this rule is founded has been explained 
in the notes at the commencement of the Syntax of the Participle. 

2. Σύνοιδα is found with various Cases: ξύνοιδα ἐμαυτῷ copos dv, Plato. 
ἐμαυτῷ ξυνήδειν οὐδὲν επισταμενῳ, Plato. 

This last expression must be referred to the force of arrRaction, 
which is particularly exerted on Participles. Attraction is indeed of 
universal influence in Greek construction. It seems as if, on many 
occasions, of two words relating to each other, but in different construc- 
tions, the Greeks wished one only to be in a particular Case, and the 
other to be attracted by it into the same Case. 

A few additional instances will be here given. Οὐδενὶ πώποτ᾽ οὐδ᾽ aic- 

pcs οὐδ᾽ ἀκλεως ἀπέβη, τοὺς ἱκέτας ἐλεήσαντι, Tsoc. Jthas never been disgrace- 

wl or inglorious in any one to pity the suppliant: ἐλεήσαντι is here attract- 
ed into the Case of οὐδενὶ. Lorobpevos εὕρισκον οὐδαμῶς ἂν ἄλλως τοῦτο διαπρα- 
ξάμενος, Isoc. Having considered, I fownd that I could by no means other- 
wise execute the business: διαπραξάμενος is attracted into the Case of σκοπού- 
μενος. Οὔτε viv μοι μεταμέλει οὕτως ἀπολογησαμένῳ, Plato. I do not now re- 
pent having thus defended myself ; for ἀπολογήσασθαι, Thus in Latin, 
Sed non sustineo esse conscius mihi dissimulanti. 

3. “Ide and ἰδοὺ, behold, which are sometimes, like the Latin em and 
ecce, found with a Nominative, are really Verbs, and govern the Accu- 
Salive ; as ἰδοὺ pe, Eurip. 

4, Adverbs with the article prefixed, are sometimes used for Adjec- 
tives, as ἐν τῷ πρὶν χρόνῳ, Soph. In the former time. In the same manner 
they are used for Substantives, as οἱ πέλας, Soph. The neighbours, vi 
πάνυ, Kurip. The illustrious. 


203 


Examples of the former. 


Πλὴν, rejection, mhiv ἐμοῦ, Aaschyl. Excepting me. 
Χάριν, for the sake, χάριν “Ἕκτορος, Hom. For the sake of 


Hector. 
Χωρὶς, separation, χωρὶς τῶν ἀνδρῶν, Her. Without the men. 
Τοῦ Aids ἐνώπιον, Plut. In the sight of God. 


Examples of the latter. 


"Ἄνευ ὀνομάτων. Plato, (ἀπὸ und.) Without names. 

“Ἅμα λαῷ, Hom. (σὺν und.) With the people. 

Nai uc? τόδε σκῆπτρον, Hom. (ἐπὺὴ und.) I swear by this 
sceptre. 

Adverbs of time are sometimes changed inte 
Adjectives ; as, , 

Οὐ χρὴ παννύχιον εὕδειν βουληφόρον ἄνδρα, Hom. A man of 
counsel ought not to sleep the whole night. 


Adverbs of quality are elegantly joined with 
the Verbs ἔχω, πάσχω, ποιέω, φέρω, Pit, χράο- 
μαι, &C.3 as, : 

“Ἡδέως tye πρὸς ἅπαντας, ἴδοο. Be pleasant to all. 

Εὖ πάσχειν, εὖ ποιεῖν, Dem. To receive, to confer, benefits. 

Two or more Negatives strengthen the Nega 
tion ; as, : 

Οὐκ ἔστιν οὐδὲν, Eurip. There is nothing. 


Οὐδέποτε οὐδὲν οὐ μὴ γένηται τῶν δεόντων, Dem. Nothing 
that is necessary will ever be done. 


1. Τ]λὴν sometimes assumes the nature of a Disjunctive, and is follow- 
ed by every Case, according to the government of the Verb with which 
it is connected ; as οὐδέν ἐστιν ἄλλο φάρμακον, πλὴν λόγος, soc. οὐ θέμις πλὴν 
τοῖς μαθήταισιν λέγειν, Aristoph. 

The particle pa, of itself, neither affirms nor denies, but adds’ 
strength to that which is affirmed or denied. In affirmations μὰ is usu- 
ally preceded by vat; in negations the particle οὐ, or something equiva- 
lent, is added. 

3. The Preposition is sometimes expressed ; ἑκὰς ἀπ᾽ ἑωῦτῶν, Her. pé- 
nots ἐπ᾽ ἐμοῦ, Hom. τῆλε ἀπὸ σχεδίης, Hom. ἅμα σὺν αὐτοῖς, Plut. 

4, Thus in Latin, Nec minus Aineas se matutinus agebat, Virg. Nec 
vespertinus circumgemit ursus ovile, Hor. 

5. In Latin, two Negatives make an Affirmative ; yet the Greek idiom 
has been imitated: Neque tu haud dicas tibi non predictum, Ter. 
The Greek idiom is of frequent occurrence in Plautus, and other old 
writers, though sometimes found in more recent ones, av in Propertius, 
2. 15, wit, and Qvid. Pont. 1. 1. 66. 


eo 


204 


But if the two Negatives belong to two dif- 
ferent Verbs, they form an Affirmative ; as, 
Οὐδὲν ἐστιν ὅτι οὐκ ὕπεσχετο, He promised every thing. 


PREPOSITIONS 
govern the Genitive, Dative, or Accusative.’ 
- GENITIVE. 


Prepositions governing the Genitive. 
> And, ἀνεὶ, ἐκ or ἐξ, πρὸ. 
DATIVE. 

Ἔν, σὺν. 
ACCUSATIVE. 

Εἴς or ἔς. 

GENITIVE and ACCUSATIVE. 
Διὰ, κατὰ, ὑπὲρ. 

DATIVE and ACCUSATIVE. 

° Ava. 


1. The principal relations of things to one another are expressed in 
Greek by three Cases; origin and possession by the Genitive, acquisilion 
and communication by the Dative, and action by the Accusative. The 
other relations, of time and place, cause and effect, motion and rest, con- 
nexion and opposition, are expressed by Prepositions. 

In the origin of language and of civilization, Prepositions were few; 
but when the progress of arts increased the relations of things, they 
became more numerous. In succeeding ages, when the extension of 
mathematical, and the improvements in philosophical, science, produc- 
ed new combinations of language, and required a greater precision 
of expression, the number of Prepositions was necessarily increased. 

But that great variety, which became expedient in modern times, has 
been applied to the Greek language, and produced some confusion and 
difficulty to the learner. ‘Twenty different meanings have been as- 
signed to a Greek Preposition ; nor were those meanings marked with 
slight shares of difference: the same Preposition has been made to bear 
the most opposite senses: to and from, for and against, above and below. 

Some successful efforts have lately been made to clear these perplex- 
ities. One primary, natural sense has been assigned to each Preposi- 
tion ; to that sense may be referred all the other significations, arising 
from analogical or figurative relations, easily flowing from it, and re- 
gulated by the Case to which the Preposition is prefixed. From the 
combinations of the Prepositions with the different Cases arises that 
variety which forms one of the beauties of the Greek language. But 
that variety is consistent. 


: 


GENITIVE, DATIVE, and ACCUSATIVE. 
Api, ἐπὶ, μετὰ, παρὰ, περὶ, πρὸς. ὑπὸ. 


᾿Ανεὶ. 

The primitive meaning of this preposition is against, and it 
is perpetually used of one thing set or placed against another, 
by way of exchange, comparison, or equivalence. It denotes, 
therefore, that one object is exchanged for another, is given 
enstead of it, comes in its place, &c. Hence we obtain the 
two general meanings, for; instead of; and hence also this 
preposition takes the genitive, because that case expresses the 
idea of removal out of a place, abstraction, &c. Thus, 

For. Χάρις ἀντὶ χάριτος. Favour for favour. 
Instead of. Εἰρήνη ἀντὶ πόλεμουι Peace instead of war. 

Hence we may naturally deduce the following kindred 
meanings: 1. in the place of ; as, ἀντὶ τοῦ πατρὸς, in the place 
of his father. 2. equal to; as, ἀνὴρ ἀντὶ πολλῶν, a hero equal 
to many (i. e. fit to be matched against many). 3. on account 
of ; as, ἀνθ᾽ ὅτου ; on what account (i. e. set or placed as an 
equivalent against what?). 4. in consideration of; as, ἀντὶ 
τῶν μέγαλων οἴδασι χάριν, they are grateful in consideration of 
(i. e. they set their gratitude as a return against) the great fa- 
vours they have recewved. In composition it denotes, 1. equa- 
lity ; as, ἀντίθεος, equal to a god (i. e. fit to be matched aaginst 
a god). 2. reciprocity ; as, ἀντιμδτρέω, I return in the same 
measure Or proportion, (i. e. 1 set measure against measure). 
3. comparison ; as, ἀντικρένω, I compare, (i. e. 1 judge of two 
things by facing one against another). 4. But more common- 
ly it denotes opposition; as, ἀντιτάσσω, I draw up against an 


enemy. 
> Ano. 


‘This preposition is properly used in reference to an object 
which before was on, with, at, another (not im, nor merely in 
the near vicinity of, another,) from which it is now separated 
Hence ἀπὸ generally shows a removal, and its primary mean- 
ing is From; thus, 

From. ’Agixe ἑαυτὸν ἀπὸ τοῦ πύργου. He threw himself 
from the tower. 

This primary meaning gives rise to many others; as, 1. 
dg’ ἵππων μάχεσθαι, to fight on horseback, (i.e. from horses). 2. 
γενέσθαι ἀπὸ deinvov, to have done supper, (1. 6. to be from sup- 


26. 


per). 3. ag ἑσπέρας, beginning with the evening (i.e. from the 
evening, α vespera). 4. of ἀπὸ τῆς στοᾶς, the Stoics, (1. e. those 
from the porch,) of ἀπὸ τῆς ’Axadnulac, the Academics (i. 6. 
those fromthe Academy). 5. 1épvev am’ ἀργυρέοιο Broio, he killed 
by means of a silver bow, (i. 6. by the aid which proceeded 
froma silver bow). 6. ἀπὸ λεέας ζῆν, to live upon, (i. 6. from) 
plunder ; 7. ἀφ᾽ éavrou, of one’s self, (i. 6. from one’s own in- 
clination). 8. ἀπὸ σπουδῆς, with zeal, (i. 6. from the influence of 
zeal). 9. ἀπὸ ξυμμαχίας αὐτόνομοι, independent according to the 
alliance, (i. e. from the terms of the alliance). 10. ὁ ἀπὸ τῶν 
πολεμίων φόδος, fearon account of the enemy, (i. e. fear proceed- 
ing from the enemy). In composition ἀπὸ denotes 1. depar- 
ture; as, ἀπέρχομαι, I go away from a place. 2. separation ; as, 
ἀποδιαστέλλω, I place quite asunder, (i. 6. 1 separate one from 
another). 3. negation ; as, ἀπόφημι, [ deny, (i. e. do not assent 
to, but speak away from, a thing). 4. privation ; as, ἀπομανθάνω, 
1 unlearn, (i. 6. 1 learn in a different way from, I learn away 
from, my previous mode of learning). 5. an augmentative-force, 
as, ἐρείδω, I fix, ἀπερείδω, I fix firmly, (i. 6.1 fix from an object, 
allowing nothing intermediate to interrupt the connection) ; 
thus, ἀπηρεισάμην τὴν ὄψιν, I kept my sight fixed (i. e. I kept 
my sight from the object referred to, in one unbroken continu- 
ation, looking off towards no other object). 


Ἔκ or εξ. 


This preposition, in its original meaning, is employed only 
in reference to such objects as proceed from the inéerior of 
another object, or from the most intimate connection with it. 
Hence we obtain the general meanings of, Out of, from; as, 

Out of. Alas ἐκ Σαλαμῖνος ἄγεν νῆας. Ajax brought ships 
out of Salamis. 
From. ᾿Εκ τῆς πόλεως φεύγειν. To flee from the city. 


This meaning of from, however, differs materially from the 
same meaning as assigned to the proposition ἀπὸς Thus, ἀπὸ 
τῆς πόλεως φεύγειν, implies merely that the person has been 
near the city, whereas ἔκ τῆς πόλεως φεύγειν pre-supposes that 
one has been in the city. From the two general meanings 
just given, we may deduce others of a kindred nature. 1. δκ 
σαιδῶν, from boyhood, (i. 6. out of the very state or time of boy- 
hood). 2. ἐξ aidvoc, from all eternity, (i. 6. out of eternity ; 
pre-supposing an intimate commingling and connection with 
eternity : whereas ἀπὸ αἰῶνος is much weaker in meaning ; as 
διὰ στὸματος τῶν ἁγίων τῶν ἀπ᾽ αἰῶνος προφητῶν, by the mouth of 
his holy prophets which have been from ancient times). 3. ἐκ φύ- 


207 


σεως δοθεὶς, given by nature, (i.e. out of the riches or bounties 
of nature). 4. ἐκ Aaxsdaiuovos Παυσανίας, Pausanias of Lace- 
demon, (i. 6. out of Lacedemon). 5. ἐκ τούτου, ἐμῇ this reason, 
(i. 6. by reason of a motive proceeding out of this). 6. ἐκ τῶν 
γόμων, according to the laws, (i. e. in conformity with the in- 
junctions which speak out from the laws). 7. ἐξ ἀρίστου, after 
dinner, (i. e. having come out of participation in dinner). 8. 
ἐκ καπνοῦ, beyond the smoke, (i. 6. out of the smoke). 9. ἐπ πε- 
ριουσίας, abundantly, (i. 6. out of one’s abundance). 9. ἐκ τοῦ 
ποδὸς κρεμάσαι τινα, to hang one by the foot, (i. 6. the state or 
condition of hanging commences with the foot, the point of 
suspension, out of which the relation of hanging originates). 
10. ἐκ τῆς ὄψιος τοῦ ὀνείρου, in consequence of the vision seen in 
the dream, (i. e. by reason of the things which proceeded out 
of the vision when seen in the dream). 11. τὰ ἐξ “Ελλήνων τεί- 
zen, the fortifications built by the Greeks, (1. 6. the fortifications 
which resulted from, which proceeded owt of, the labours of 
the Greeks). Hence τὰ ἐξ ἀνθρώπων πράγματα, deeds which can 
only be done by man, or, in other words, great, extraordinary 
deeds. In composition it denotes, 1. separation or division ; 
as, éxxgivw, I select, I separate from. 2. preference or pre-emi- 
nence ; as, ἔξοχος, eminent, (i. e. rising above, having one’s self 
out of, others). 3. Completion or success in the action expressed 
by the verb; as, φεύγω, 1 try to escape, or run away ; ἐκφεύγω, 
I succeed in running away, I escape. So σώζω and ἐκσώζω, &c. 


Πρὸ. 

This preposition is commonly used in speaking of place, 
and then also of time, and connects the idea of precedence or 
priority with the usual signification of the genitive. Its pri- 
mitive meaning is Before ; as, 

Before. Πρὸ θυρῶν φαίνεθ᾽ ἡμῖν. He appeared to us before 
the doors. | 


Hence we obtain the following kindred meanings: 1. πρὸ 
ἄλλων, more than others, (i. 6. before, or in advance of, others, 
as regards the exercise of any quality). 2. πρὸ πολλοῦ movetoOan, 
to value very highly, (i. e. to value before much, to value higher 
than much). 3. ἀθλεύειν πρὸ ἄνακτος, to labour for, or at the 
command of, the king, (i. 6. to labour in front of, before, the 
king ; the latter keeping aloof and commanding, while another 
goes before and executes). Ina similar way, πρὸ φίλου ποιδῖν, 
to do for a friend, implies that one goes before and executes 
the wishes of a friend. 4. πρὸ φόδου, through fear, (i. 6. fear 
being the impelling cause, and urging forwards one who is 


208 


before, in front of, it). 5. when joined with ἀπὸ, διὰ, περὶ, with- 
out a case the sense is strengthened; as ἀποπρὸ, afar off, (i.e. 
away from the front of an object, and consequently at a dis- 
tance. from it). διαπρὸ, through and through, (i. e. through 
in front ; not resisted by the surface of a body, but passing 
completely through). ἐπιπρὸ, farther before, more forwards, (i.e. 
on the front ; referring to something appended to, adhering to, 
or placed upon, the front of an object, and consequently more 
or less in advance of the object itself.) In composition πρὸ 
has the general force of, before, in front of, forwards, of which 
examples will readily suggest themselves. 


DATIVE.— Ev. 


This preposition is used only with verbs or clauses indica- 
tive of rest, as the Latin zm with the ablative. Hence ἐν is 
joined in Greek with the dative only, this being the case which 
expresses that in, on, or with which any thing rests or remains. 
The primary meaning of ἐν is In; as, 

In. Ἔν τῷ Θεῷ το τέλος ἐστὲ The end is in God. 


Hence we deduce the following kindred meanings: 1. ἐν 
οἴκῳ, at home, (i. 6. in the house). 2. ἐν ἑαυτῷ &yévero, he came 
to himself, (i. e. he was in himself again). 3. ἐν Μαραθῶνι, at 
Marathon, (i. 6. in the plain of Marathon), 4. ἐν ἐμοί ἐστι, it 
depends on me, (i. €. it is πη my power). 5. ἐν τάχϑι, speedily, 
(i.e.in haste). 6. ἐν δύναμεν εἶναι, to be able, (i.e. to be in the 
possession of power or means). 7. ἐν ἡδονῆ εἶναι, to please, to 
will a thing, (i. 6. to be in a pleased, a willing, state of mind). 
8. ἐν ἐμοὶ θρασὺς, bold against me, (i. 6. bold in what relates to 
me, bold as far as regards me). 9. ἐγ φαρμάκῳ ἐστὶ, it serves as 
a remedy, (i. 6. it is in the character, place, or stead, of a re- 
medy). 10. ἐν ὁμοίῳ ποιεῖσθαι, to esteem equally, (i.e. to rank in 
an equal degree). 11. ὁ» στεφάνοις, adorned with chaplets, (i. 6. 
im an array, or adornment, of chaplets). 12. ἐν οἴνῳ, at wine, 
(i. 6. in the midst of the festivities of the table). 13. It is 
sometimes used, however, when proximity only is implied, as 
ἐν Λακεδαίμονι, near Lacedemon; ἐν Μαντινείᾳ, near Mantinea. 
(Xen. Hellen. 7. 5.18). In this usage it appears to be equi- 
valent to the English phrase, “iz the vicinity of, &c.” 14. 
It is frequently put with its case for an adjective or participle ; 
as, πάντες ἐν νόσῳ, all sick, (i.e. all in a state of sickness). 15. 
It is sometimes followed by a genitive, but then a dative is al- 
ways understood ; as, ἐν ἅδου (οἴκῳ understood) in the shades ; 
ἐν διδασκάλου (οἴκῳ understood) in the master’s house. 16. It 


209 


sometimes stands alone, with its case understood ; as, ἐν δὲ δὴ 
καὶ Δεσβίους εἷλε, amongst others he took also the Lesbians ; 
(ἄλλοις understood). So also ἐν δὲ λέαινα, among the animals 
was α lioness ; (θήροις understood). 17. Sometimes ἐν and εἰς 
are exchanged ; (for an explanation of which construction, see 
remarks at the end of the prepositions). In composition this 
preposition has the general force of in, among. 3 


Σὺν. 


Where σὺν is used, it implies that the object is an integral 
part of another, something inherent in it; and therefore it takes 
the dative, since this case expresses that in or on which any 
thing rests. In this it differs from μδτὰ, since μδτὰ expresses 
a looser connection, while σὺν always implies a nearer and 
more intimate union. The primary meaning of σὺν is with; 
together with ; thus, 


With. Σὺν Θεῷ. With God’s assistance. 


Hence we obtain other kindred meanings: 1. σὺν τῷ γόμω, 
according to the law, (i. 6. in conformity with the law). 2. σὺν 
τῷ σῷ ἀγαθῷ, to thy advantage, (i. e. accompanied with advan- 
tage to thee). 3. σὺν τοῖς “Ελλησι sivas, to be on the side of the 
Greeks, (i. 6. to side with the Greeks). 4. of σὺν αὐτῷ, his 
companions, (i. e. those with him). In composition it denotes 
1. concurrence in action; as, συμπογνέω, I labour along with 
another. 2. association ; as, σύνδιμι, 1 associate with. 3. union, 
as, συμπλέκω, I entwine together, or interweave. 4. collection ; 
as, συμφέρω, I bring together, I collect. 5. The completion and 
fulfilment of an action; as, συμπληρόω, I fill up, I ¢omplete. 
(The preposition here denotes the presence of all the compo- 
nent parts, with which, when collected together, the action is 
completed and fulfilled). 6. It strengthens the meaning of a 
verb; as, συγκόπτω, I break to pieces, (i. e. I beat or strike the 
component parts of a thing together, and thus loosen the con- 
nexion between them). 7. In the verbs συγάχθομαι, συλλυπέο- 
μαι, συναλγέω, συμπάσχω, συμπενθέω, &c. grief felt in common 
is expressed. 


ACCUSATIVE.—Eis or és. 


The primitive meaning of this preposition is into, and hence 
it takes the accusative, this case expressing that towards which 
any thing approaches or tends, and into which it enters or pene- 
trates. ‘Thus, 

Into. Εἰς ἄστυ ἦλθεν. He came into the city. 
19 


210 


Hence we deduce other kindred meanings: 1. ἦλθεν εἰς τὴν 
“Ἑλλάδα, He came to Greece, (i.e. he not only came to the bor- 
ders, but penetrated also into the country itself). 2. ὕμνος sis 
᾿“πόλλωνα, a hymn to Apollo, (i. e.a hymn, not slightly touch- 
ing upon, but entering into, the praises of Apollo). 3. δὔνους 
sig tov δῆμον, well disposed towards the people, (i. 6. a state of 
mind which enters into, and concerns itself about, the interests 
of the people). 4. ἁμαρτάνειν εἰς τινα, to offend against a per- 
son, (i. 6. to cause, by one’s misconduct, an angry feeling to 
enter into another’s breast). 5. διαβεβλημένος εἰς Μακεδόνας, 
calumniated among the Macedonians, (i. Θ. an injurious report 
concerning another having been made to enter into the minds 
of the Macedonians). 6. τὰ μὲν sig Μέδουσαν, as to what con- 
cerns Medusa, (i. e. as to what enters into, and forms part of, 
the account relative to Medusa). 7. πολλὰ καλὰ ἔργα ἀπεφήναν- 
τὸ sig πάντας ἀνθρώπους, many noble deeds have been displayed 
before all men, (i. e. have been displayed before, and have enter- 
ed into, the memories of all men). 8, μακάριος πέφυκ᾽ ἀνήρ, πλὴν 
sig θυγατέρας. He isa happy man, except as far as regards his 
daughters, (i.e. his happiness stops at his daughters, and does 
not enter into, or form part of, the things appertaining to them). 
9. σπεύδομαι εἰς “χιληᾶ, I am hastening to Achilles, (i.e. 1 am 
hastening to go in to Achilles). 10. ἐς τί, how long ? (i.e. into 
what point of time?) 11. sis ἐσπέραν, towards evening, (i. 6. 
having penetrated a little into the beginning of evening). 12. 
sig ἅπαξ, once for all, (i. 6. having gone deeply and seriously 
tnto the first performance of an action, and expressing thereby 
a determination not to repeat it, but to let it serve once for all). 
13. With numerals it signifies about ; as, εἰς τριακοσίους éyé- 
vovto, they were about three hundred, (i. 6. they entered or ad- 
vanced into the number three hundred, though they did not 
reach to the full limit and extent of that number ; they wanted 
but little of being full three hundred strong). 14..It is some- 
times followed by a genitive, but then an accusative is always 
understood ; as, εἰς “dou, to the shades, (οἶκον or τόπον under- 
stood.) In composition it has the general force of inio, to, 
unto, &c. as siopéow, 1 bring into, &c. 


GENITIVE and ACCUSATIVE.—d. 

This preposition, in its original import, signifies through. 
Hence it takes, in this sense, the genitive ; since, at least in 
the local meaning, the idea of passing through includes in it- 
self also that of passing out or proceeding from, &c. Thus, 

Gen. Through. dvd χειμῶνος, through the winter. 


211 


Sometimes, however, δεὰ marks the direction of an action 
upon an object, and in consequence is joined with the accusa- 
tive. When thus followed by an accusative case, it has the 
general meaning of on account of: as, 


Acc. On account of. dia φθόνον. On account of envy. 


I. From the general meaning of διὰ with the genitive, we 
deduce other kindred meanings: 1. It marks the instrument; 
since that through which the thing done passes, as it were, to 
its accomplishment, is said to be the medium of that accom- 
plishment, inasmuch as it lies in the midst, between the voli- 
tion and the action; as, διὰ πέλανος γράφειν, to write with ink, 
(i. e. through the means of ink). So also, δ ἐλέφαντος εἴδωλα, 
idols of ivory, (i. e. made through the means afforded by ivory 
as a material). 2. διὰ τινός πράττειν, to do a thing by means of 
another, (i. 6. through the agency of another). 3. διὰ πίστεως, 
by reason of a promise given, (i. 6. through the effect produced 
by a promise given). 4. διὰ παντὸς, always, (i. 6. through all 
time). 5. διὰ μακροῦ, after a long time, (i. 6. through a long 
intervening period of time. In each of these phrases χρόνου 
is understood). 6. διὰ πέντ ἡμέρων, every five days, (i. e. 
through intervals of five dayseach). 7. κῶμαι διὰ πολλοῦ, villa- 
ges placed at a considerable distance from each other, (i. 6. villa- 
ges which one meets with, after passing through long interme- 
diate distances). 8. διὰ βραχέων εἰπεῖν, to say in a few words, 
(i. 6. through the medium of afew words). 9. διὰ χειρῶν ἔχειν, 
to have in one’s hands, to take care of, to look to, (i.e. to havea 
thing in one’s hands, and to pass it through them from one 
hand to the other; to handle ; to exercise more or less obser- 
vation and care towards a thing). 10. διὰ μνήμης τίθεσθαε, to 
remind, (i. 6. to put a thing through another’s remembrance). 
11. διὰ πάντων αξίος θέας, worthy of being noticed among all, 
(i. 6. through the midst of all). 12. δὲ αἰτίας yew, to accuse, 
(i. 6. to hold a person bound, by due form of law, to go through 
a charge preferred against him and answer to it). So also, δὲ 
ἀντίας, δέναι, to be accused, (i.e. to be going through an accusa- 
tion, and striving to clear one’s self from it). 13. With the 
verbs ἱέναι, ἔρχεσθαι, λαμδάνειν, &c. it constitutes other and si. 
milar periphrases ; as, διὰ τύχης ἱέναι, to be fortunate, (i. 6. to 
be going through a career of fortunate operations) : διὰ φόδου 
ἔρχεσθαι, to be in fear, (i. 6. to be going through the state of 
being in fear): δὲ οἴκτου λαθεῖν, to pity, (i. e. literally, to take 
through pity or compassion ; to make another experience the 
full extent of one’s compassionate feelings, by Jeading him, as 
it were, through the very midst of those feelings). 


212 


II. With the accusative, as already remarked, δεὰ denotes 
the direction of an action upon_a definite object, and signifies 
generally on account of. But as the object and the occasion, 
or cause, of an action are nearly related, (the object being in 
one sense the occasion), hence dle, with an accusative, though 
translated on account of, for the sake of, is often, if not always, 
exactly equivalent to through. ‘This meaning of through, 
however, differs, as will readily be perceived, from that which 
διὰ has with the genitive, in its carrying with it a reference tp 
some action exerted upon a definite object, and therefore tak- 
ing not the genitive but the accusative case. 

From the general meaning of, on account of, for the sake of, 
which διὰ has with the accusative, may be deduced other kin- 
dred meanings: 1. οὐ δὶ ἐμὲ, not by me, (not on account of any 
thing 1 have done; not through my fault). 2. διὰ σὲ ταῦτα γρά- 
gu, [ write this for thee, (i. e. on thy account ; through the re- 
gard which I feel towards thee). 3. δὲ ὁν τρόπον, by what 
means, (i.e. on account of the performance of what things ; 
through the effect produced by what means). 4. διὰ τοὺς θεοὺς 
by the protection of the gods, (i. e. on account of the aid afford- 
ed by the gods; through the protection extended by the gods). 
5. In the early state of the language, before the use of the 
prepositions was definitely settled, we find διὰ with the accu- 
sative sometimes having the simple force of διὰ with the geni- 
tive; thus, γύκτα δὶ ἀμδροσίην, during the divine night. Ho- 
mer: vixt« δὲ ὀρφναίην, during the dark nght. Hom. Even 
in these and other passages, however, of a similar nature, there 
may be perhaps a remote and obscure reference to the influ. 
ence of night, &c. 

III. In composition, διὰ has often the force of the particle 
dis in English, and of dis, trans, tra, in Latin; marking 1. 
separation ; as, διασπαώ, I tear asunder, (i. 6. I tear a thing 
through the middle, or any other part). 2. division; as, διαμε- 
ρέζω, I divide into parts, (i. 6. 1 make a separation through the 
different parts of a thing). 3. arrangement; as, διατάσσω, [ 
dispose, I arrange, (i. e. 1 make an arrangement through the 
several parts of a thing ; I place each part of a thing in sepa- 
vate order ; dispono). 4. passage through; as, διαπλέω, I sail 
through, I sail over. 5, reciprocation ; as, διαλέγομαι, I converse 
with another, (i. 6. 1 speak, after having passed through a cer- 
tain interval of time in silence, during which time he with 
whom I converse is speaking; I speak in turn). 6. opposi- 
tion or competition ; as, διάδειν, 1 sing by turns, (i. e. referring 
to two musical competitors, who, during the contest, have their 
respective intervals of silence and exhibition of skill). ‘This 


213 


verb διάδω, has also another meaning ; viz. I sing out of tune, 
(i. e. I sing through the barriers interposed by melody and the 
rules of the verse; I sing through, or overleap, the bars of the 
measure). 7. perseverance ; as, διαπονέω, 1 elaborate, I bring 
to perfection with much toil, (i. e. 1 labour through every inter- 
posing difficulty ; as persevero in Latin, from per and severus ; 
| adhere rigidly to my purpose through all intervening obsta- 
cles). 7 


Kata. 


This preposition originally means down, implying the mo- 
tion downwards, of one body towards another. Now when one 
body moves against another, either it moves with sufficient 
force to dislodge the quiescent body from its previous state of 
rest, or else the quiescent body resists the moving body so 
powerfully, that the latter is compelled to stop at, and remain 
even with,the former. The preposition κατὰ is used, therefore, 
to express each of these kinds of motion ; and as the genitive, 
in Greek, expresses the idea of removal from a place, while the 
accusative, on the other hand, denotes ¢hat on which any thing 
exercises a direct and immediate influence, without any refer- 
ence to change of place; hence κατὰ is joined with the geni- 
tive in order to express more fully the first kind of motion, 
and with the accusative inorder to denote the second. Hence 
also, the primitive force of κατὸ with the genitive is down 
against; or simply against ; and with the accusative, even with. 
From these two sources flow all the various meanings in which 
κατὰ has been used. Thus, with the genitive ; 

I. κατ᾽ Aioytrov λόγος, a speech against Aischines : so also, 
λόγος κατὰ τινὸς, a speech against any one. In these and simi- 
lar examples the idea of motion from place is always implied. 
Thus, A‘schines, through conscious guilt shrinks from the 
accusation of’ Demosthenes. And, indeed, generally speak- 
ing, in the case of every accusation, since the accused is com- 
pelled to remain silent, while the accuser is advancing with 
his proofs; and since the guilt or innocence of the party ac- 
cused cannot usually be known until after he has answered 
his accuser ; the mind pre-supposes a receding, im a greater 
or less degree, on the part of the former, from the charge pre- 
ferred against him, whether it be only an apparent receding 
in consequence of his remaining silent while his accuser ad- 
vances with a bold and confident air, and seems to convict him 
of his offence ; or whether it be an actual receding, arising 
either from guilt, or from some prudential motive, in order 

19 


214 


that he may advance in turn against the charge with more 
coolness and deliberation. 2. τρία ἐγκώμια καθ᾽ ὑμῶν τὰ κάλ- 
λιστα, three beautiful panegyrics pronounced upon you. Here 
the literal force of κατὰ is down against, meaning by against 
(not hostility, but) simply motion towards, and the idea of 
change of place, is implied in those on whom the panegyric is 
pronounced shrinking from it through modesty. 3. κατὰ γῆς 
κάθημαι, I am sitting on the ground. Here the surface of the 
ground has been disturbed by the body coming in contact with 
it. 4. κατὰ γῆς ἀποπέμπω, I send him under the earth. ‘That 
is, | send against the earth, which opens to receive him, and 
he descends to the shades. 5. κατ᾽ ἀνθρώπου καὶ ἵππου τὸ 
ζῶον Aéyetar; the term animal is used both in reference to man 
and to the horse. Here the idea of a burthen is conveyed; 1. 6. 
the term animal is put upon, is applied to, man and the horse ; 
and a partial yielding of each to the burthen is pre-supposed 
by the mind. 6. ὀμόσαν καθ᾽ ἱερῶν τελείων, to swear by a solemn 
sacrifice. ‘This forms a beautiful example. The sacrifice is 
burning, the oath is put down upon the sacrifice, and both to- 
gether ascend to the skies. 7. καθ᾽ ἑκατόμδης εὔξασθαι, to make 
a solemn vow at the offering of a hecatomb. ‘This admits of 
precisely the same explanation as the preceding phrase. 8. 
καθ᾽ ἱερῶν τελείων ἑστιᾷν, to give a sumptuous entertainment 
with a solemn sacrifice. ‘That is, to entertain down against a 
solemn sacrifice. Here the action implied by κατὰ is exerted 
against that portion of the sacrifice which is not burnt in ho- 
nour of the Gods, and the idea of change of place is contained 
in the consumption of the remains of the victim by the guests. 
9. κατὰ γήλοφου, down the hill. Here the idea of change of 
place is implied in the declivity of the hill receding, as it were, 
beneath the body which has come down against, and is rapidly 
traversing, its surface. So in Homer, βῆ δὲ κατ᾽ Οὐλύμποιο 
καρήνῶν, he descended from the heights of Olympus. Here the 
idea of change of place is beautifully and strongly expressed. 
Not only does the declivity of the mountain recede beneath the 
rapid footsteps, but the very mountain tops tremble under the 
tread, of the irritated god. The idea of descent and conse- 
quent change of place is also implied in the following exam- 
ples; as, καθ᾽ ὅλης τῆς περιχώρου, through the whole region 
around, i. 6. down through, along : κατὰ τῆς κεφαλης, down the 
head ; ἐξορκέζω os κατὰ τοῦ Θεοῦ τοῦ ζῶντος, I adjure thee by 
the living God, i. 6. God himself being invoked to descend as 
a Witness: κατὰ θνητῶν ἀνθρώπων, among mortal men, 1. 6. down 
the race of mortal men, from the first to the last ; the idea of 
change of place being implied in one generation passing in re- 


210 


view,after another. Sometimes the Poets use it with a date ; 
as, κατ᾽ ὄρεσφι, among the mountains. . 

Il. With the accusative, κατὰ carries with it, 85 has already 
been remarked, the primitive import of even with. Hence we 
deduce the following significations: 1. κατ᾽ ἄρχας, in the be- 
ginning, (i. 6. even with the beginning). 2. κατὰ γῆν, on the 
ground, (i. 6. even with the ground). 3. κατὰ στῆθος ἔβαλε, he 
struck him on the breast, (i. 6. even with the breast). 4. κατὰ 
τὸν πορθμὸν ἐγένοντο, they came near to the harbour, (1. 6. even 
with, close up to). 5. κατὰ τὸν τόπον, at the place, (i. e. even 
with the place). 6. ἤλθε κατ᾽ αὐτὸν, he came to him, (i. 6. he 
came even with him). 7. κατὰ Κέρκυραν, over against Corcy- 
ra, (i. 6. even with, abreast of). 8. κατ ὀφθαλμοὺς, before one’s 
eyes, (i. 6. even with one’s eyes). 9. κατὰ τὸν γόμον, accord- 
ing to the law, (i. e. even with, conformable to). 10. καθ’ ὅλην 
τὴν πόλιν, throughout the whole city, (i. e. even with the whole 
city). 11. καθ᾽ ἑαυτὸν, by himself, (i. e. even with himself). 12. 
κατ᾽ ἔτος, every year, (1. e. even with each. year). .13. xar 
ἔπος, word for word, (i. Θ. even with each word), ὅσο. In these 
and other similar instances it will easily appear that there is 
no reference whatever to any change of place, but to some ob- 
ject which is fully acted upon, and yet, at the same time, pre- 
sents a full resistance to that which acts upon it. 

In composition, κατὰ often gives additional force to the sense 
of the simple term; as φορτίζω, J load, καταφορτίζω, I over- 
load, (i. 6. 1 weigh down with a burthen). 2. It denotes oppo- 
sition; as κρίνω, 1 judge, κατακρίνω, I decide against, I condemn, 
(i. 6.1 judge down against another). 3. ψηφέζομαι, I give a 
vote, καταφηφίζομαι, I give a contrary vote, (i.e. 1 vote against 
my former vote). 4. descent; as, Below, I go, καταβαίνω, I 
descend. 


‘ Ὑπὲρ. 


The primitive meaning of this preposition is over, above, 
with which are associated the kindred ideas of power, au- 
thority, protection, ὅσο. As the genitive is that case which 
denotes motion from, ὑπὲρ is always joined with it when we 
want to express from whom that power emanates, on whose ac- 
count that authority is exercised, or that protection afforded 
&c. Hence ὑπὲρ, with the genitive has the general meaning 
of for, on account of, &c. With the accusative, on the other 
hand, it denotes the exercise of power, authority, protection, 
&c. upon a given object, without any reference to motion pro- 
ceeding from that object. Hence ὑπὲρ with the accusative 


may commonly be rendered by over, above, more than, against, 
ἄς. "Thus, 


216 


I. Στρατηγεῖν ὑπὲρ ὑμῶν τῆς ’“σίας. To be general for you 
in Asta, (i. 6. literally, above from you; the authority (ὑπὲρ), 
emanating from you (ὑμῶν), and to be exercised in your behalf). 
2. μάχεσθαι ὑπὲρ τινος, to fight for any one, (i. e. to stand over 
(ὑπὲρ) in an attitude of protection, either figuratively or really, 
and to fight in consequence of some solicitation, wish, &c. 
proceeding from some one (τε»ος)). 3. δεδιέναι ὑπὲρ τινος, to fear 
for any one’s safety, (i. e. to place one’s self, in thought, in an 
attitude of anxious observation over another, and to feel soli- 
citous for his safety, in consequence of something proceeding 
from, or connected with, him, which interests one in his be- 
half; as, δεδιέναι ὑπὲρ ἀδελφοῦ, to fear for a brother, (i. e. in 
consequence of that kindred feeling of affection and sympathy 
which, proceeding from a brother as its exciting cause, connects 
us with him in the bonds of fraternal love). 4. ὑπὲρ πατρὸς 
καὶ μητρὸς, for, or, on account of, father and mother, (i. 6. to place 
one’s self, either in thought or in reality, over a father and mo- 
ther in an attitude of watchful regard, and to be urged to the 
performance of some act for their welfare, by filial affection, 
which proceeds from them as the exciting cause). 5. ὑπὲρ τῶν 
κηπῶν οὖρος κεῖται, the keeper lies above the gardens, (i. 6. the 
keeper has his post above the gardens, whence he may watch 
them to more advantage, and the exciting cause proceeds from 
the gardens, for he is their keeper): 6. ἐξ Aidionias τῆς ὑπὲρ 
Aiyuatou, from Axthiopia which is beyond Egypt, (i- e. which 
lies above in reference to Egypt). Here the relation proceeds 
from Egypt; and Afthiopia, as far as regards the land of 
Egypt, is situated above: in other words, it is more to the south 
than Egypt. So also, τὸ ὄρος τὸ ὑπὲρ Τεγέας, the mountain 
which lies above Tegea: here the principle of relation proceeds 
from 'Tegea; and the mountain in question lies above, or be- 
yond, as far as that cit, is concerned. So also, τὰ λεγομένα 
ὑπὲρ ἑκάστων, the thin, s that are mentioned respecting each: 
here ὑπὲρ denotes the certain things are said over certain per- 
sons as the exciting cause of those remarks, and as the subject 
of them. 7. “Ὁ Θεὸς ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν ἐστὶ, God is for us, (i. 6. God 
is in the heavens in the attitude of a protector, because we have 
done something to merit that protection : the cause of his be- 
ing our protector emanates from ourselves). 

If. With the accusative ὑπὲρ denotes over, above, &c. with- 
out any reference to. motion from the object on which its ac- 
tion is exerted. Hence it carries with it, when construed 
with the accusative, the idea of power, superiority, dc. origi- 
nating in a thing itself, and not emanating, or derived, from 
another. ‘Thus, 1. ὑπὲρ ἄνθρωπόν ἐστι, it is beyond man’s 


217 


power, (i.e. it is above man). 2. ὑπὲρ τὼν δόμον, over the house. 
3. ὑπὲρ τεσσερήκοντα ἄνδρας, more than forty men, (i. 6. above 
forty men). 4. ὁπὲρ τὸν καιρὸν, unseasonably, (i. 6. over, in ad- 
vance of, the proper opportunity). 5, ὑπὲρ μόρον, against des- 
tiny, (i. e. over, more than, fate had decreed.) 

111. In composition, it retains its general signification of 
over, above, for, &c. thus, ὑπεράγαθος, eminently good, (1. Θ. over, 
more than, simply good): ὑπεραιδεῖσθαι, to be excessively asham- 
ed, (i. e. to be above, more than, simply ashamed): ὑπερέχειν, 
to hold over: ὑπερμάχεσθαι, to fight for something : ὑπεραγο- 
ρεύειν, to harangue in favour of any one: ὑπεράλιος, beyond sea, 
(i. 6. over sea). 


DATIVE and ACCUSATIVE.—’ Ave. 


The primitive meaning of this preposition is motion upwards. 
Hence it carries with it the general signification of up, up on, 
up along, &c. It is generally joined with an accusative. In 
poetry, however, it sometimes governs a dative. From its 
primitive meaning of up, up on, up along, are deduced various 
kindred meanings. ‘Thus, 

I. ᾿4νὰ τὰ ὄρη, by the mountains, (1. e. up along the moun- 
tains). 2. "Ava τὴν “Ελλάδα, through Greece, (1. 6. up along 
Greece ; referring properly to motion from the coast into the 
interior). 3. ἀνὰ τὸν βίον, during life, (i. e. up along lite; com- 
paring the progress through life to the toilsome ascent of a 
mountain, the summit of which brings us nearer to heaven). 
4. ἀνὰ μέρος, by turns, alternately, (1. e. up along each part, 
through each part). 5. ἀνὰ πέντε, five by five, (i. e. counting 
up a certain number of fives separately ; up each five). 6. 
ἀνὰ πρώτους, among the first, (1. 6. up among the first, and not 
down among the second, third, and fourth). 7. ἀνὰ μέσον, mo- 
derately, (i. e. up a middle course). 8. ἀγὰ τὸν ποταμὸν πλέειν, 
to sail against the current, (i. e. to sail up the river). 9. ἀνὰ 
χρόνον, in process of time, after an interval of time, (i. 6. up 
along time ; the idea of ascent, being naturally implied from 
the accumulation of years, one upon the other). 10. ἀγὰ τὸ 
στόμα, through the mouth, (i. e. up along the mouth, the head 
being naturally somewhat depressed and bent forward towards 
the table in eating). 11. ἀνὰ κράτος, by force, (i. 6. up along 
strength ; collecting and reckoning up our strength, and em- 
ploying itas a means), 12. ἀγὰ θύμον, in mind, (i. e. up along 
the mind, commencing with its least and ending with its strong- 
est powers : taking the whole range of the mind). 

Il. With the Poets this preposition is sometimes found with 


218 


a dative case. As the dative expresses that in, on, or with 
which, any thing rests, remains, &c. it is hence accompanied 
by ἀνὰ whenever we wish to convey the combined ideas of 
elevationand rest. ‘Thus,1. χρυσέῳ ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ, upon a gold- 
en sceptre. Hom. Jl. & 15. (alluding to certain fillets,remain- 
ing attached to the top of a golden sceptre). 2. εὕδει δ᾽ ἀνὰ 
σκάπτῳ Aids αἰετός. The eagle sleeps on the sceptre of Jove. 
Pind. Pyth. 1.10. So also, χρυσέαις ἀν᾽ inno, in a golden 
chariot. Pind. Ol. 1. 66. (vid. Boeckh. ad loc). The idea of 
rest is here implied by the individual alluded to being seated 
in the chariot. 3. ἀνὰ vavaiv,in ships. Eurip. [ph. A. 759. 

III. In composition it denotes, 1. motion upwards ; as, 
ἀναβαίνω, I ascend. 2. repetition; as, ἀγαδιδάσκω, 1 teach 
again, I teach anew, (i. e. after teaching a subject throughout, 
down to the very end, I go back and teach again along the top 
of it, 1 re-commence my instructions). 3. In many cases, 
however, of composition with verbs, it strengthens the mean- 
ing of the simple verb by the force of its primitive significa- 
tion ; thus, ἀναβοάω, I cry aloud, (i.e. I send up a cry): ἀνα- 
γελάω, I laugh aloud, (i. 6. I raise a laugh): ἀναγράφω, I re- 
gister, (i. e. I write up public records): ἀγαδείκνυμι, I shew, 
(i. 6. I hold up to view): ἀναδινέω, I whirl, (i. 6. up and down 
in a rotatory motion): ἀναδέχομαι, 1 stand bail, (i. 6. I take 
upon myself to become surety for another): 4. Frequently 
also verbs compounded with ἀγὰ have the signification of back 
added to their original meaning; as, ἀνακαλέω, [call back, [ 
recall: ἀνακλίνω, I lean back, I recline, &c. ‘The verb avaxa- 
λέω admits of a very easy explanation. ‘Thus, if I call an- 
other back to any place, it evidently implies that the place to 
which he is recalled was the one from which he originally 
advanced. I therefore call him from the place which he has 
reached, up along that place where the motion forwards ori- 
ginated, and from which he started in the first instance ; that 
is, I call him back. The verb ἀνακλένω properly denotes the 
elevation of the face upwards as the body is thrown back in a 
reclining posture. 


GENITIVE, DATIVE, and ACCUSATIVE.— Auqu. 


The primitive force of this preposition is around, round 
about, and it is joined with the genitive, dative, and accusative. 
With each of these three cases it retains its primitive mean- 
ing of about, round about. Besides this, it conveys with the 
genitive the idea of something issuing from, or occasioned by ; 
with the dative, rest or continuance in, on, or with any object; 


219 


and with the accusative, an approach, tendency, or reference 
towards any object. : 

I. With the genitive. 1. ἀμφὶ πόνου ὁ πόνος, toil upon toil, 
(i. 6. toil exerted round about other previous toil, and succeed- 
ing to, or, in other words, emanating from, it). 2. ἀμφὶ Φοί- 
Bou, for the love of Apollo, (i. e. doing something round about 
Apollo, in a figurative sense, on account of some kindness 
conferred by lim on us, some favour proceeding from him). 3. 
φάναι ἀμφὶ θεῶν καλὰ, to speak well of the gods, (i. 6. to speak 
well round about the gods, in consequence of blessings issuing 
from them towards us). 4. ἀμφὶ τῆς πόλεως, in the environs of, 
or, round about the city, (1. e. round about from the city, or, round 
about 7m respect of the city). 

Il. With the dative. 1. ἀμφ᾽ ὥμοισιν ἐδύσατο τεύχεα, καλὰ, 
he put on the fine armour, (i. 6. he put the fie armour round 
about his person, and it depended from, or rested upon, his 
shoulders: in other words, his shoulders supported the prin- 
cipal superincumbent weight of the armour). 2. ἀμφὶ μάχη 
τοσαῦτα εἰρήσθω, let thus much have been said concerning the 
fight. (Here the presence of the perfect εἰρήσθω, with its re- 
ference to continuance of action, naturally calls for ἀμφὶ with 
the dative; and the passage is equivalent to, ‘“ let thus much 
have been said and remain said round about, on the subject of 
the battle”). 3. ἀμφὶ δὲ τῷ θανάτῳ αὐτοῦ, as to what regards 
his death, (i. e. as to what has been said round about or report- 
ed, on the subject of his death). 4 σκιᾷ τινὶ λόγους ἀνέσπα, 
τοὺς μὲν ᾿“τρειδῶν κάτα, τοὺς δ᾽ ἀμφ᾽ Οδυσσεῖ, he darkly uttered 
hints against the Atride and about Ulysses, (i.e. what he said 
respecting Ulysses was still more obscure than what he utter- 
ed against the Atride: it was spoken round about on the sub- 
ject of Ulysses). 5. ἀμφὶ δ᾽ dg’ αὐτῳ ἄλλοι ἕποντο, others fol- 
lowed after him, (i.e. others followed round about, whose move- 
ments depended upon his), 6. ἀμφὶ σφέσι πένθος ὄρωρε, sorrow 
arose among them, (i. Θ. sorrow arose round about, and remain- 
ed resting among, them). 7. τοιῆδ᾽ ἀμφὶ γυναικὶ πολὺν χρόνον 
ἄλγεα πάσχειν, to suffer woes for a long period, about such a wo- 
man. (Here the dative conveys the idea of the united woes 
of the Greeks centering in, and being identified wih, Helen as 
their exciting cause). 8. ἀμφ᾽ “Ελένη καὶ κτήμασι πᾶσι μάχεσ 
θαι, to fight for Helen and all her wealth. (Here Helen and 
the wealth she brought from Sparta, are supposed to be plac 
ed in the midst as a prize, round about which the combatants 
are to fight, while the dative implies that the hopes and the 
fears of the parties centre in Helen and her wealth, and remain 
fixed upon so tempting a prize). 9. κάββαλεν ἄνδρα κακὰ 


220 


χθονὸς, ἀμφὶ δ᾽ ἀρ' αὐτῷ ἕζετο, he threw the man upon the ground, 
and sat down upon him, (i. e. his own person δ νον round 
about his prostrate foe, and remained resting upon him). 10. 
πεπαρμένη ἀμφ᾽ ὀνύχεσσιν, pierced with his talons. (Here the 
presence of the perfect participle wemaguévy requires, as in the 
second example, the dative case with ἀμφὶ, and the literal mean- 
ing of the phrase is “ having been pierced and remaining pierc- 
ed round about, with the talons still continuing in the wound”). 
III. With the accusative. 1. ἀμφὶ κάμινον ἔχω τὰ πολλὰ, I 
am almost always occupied about my forge, (i. e. 1 am occupied 
round about my forge, and constantly going towards it.) 2. 
dug ἅλα ἔλσαι “Ayouodc, to force the Greeks towards the sea, 
(i. e. to force the Greeks towards the sea, and the places 
round about it). 3. ἀμφὶ τὰ ἑβδομήκοντα ἔτη, about seventy 
years, (i. e. round about seventy years, and advancing rapidly 
towards that period). 4. Joined with a proper name, it is used 
in three different senses—Ffirst. It dencies the person sig- 
nified by the proper name, with his companions, followers, &c. 
as, of ἀμφὶ Πεισίστρατον, Pisistratus with his troops: of ἀμφὶ 
τὸν ’Oggéa, Orpheus and his followers : in these and similar 
phrases, the accusative denotes that the movements and ac- 
tions of those who are engaged round about the principal per- 
sonage, look to, are directed towards, are governed by, his 
movements.—Secondly, ἀμφὶ with the accusative of a proper 
name, sometimes denotes merely the person whom the proper 
name expresses. This construction appears to result from an 
increased force being given to the meaning of the accusative, 
by which the person towards whom the actions and move- 
ments of the rest are directed, occupies, in consequence of 
his rank or some other circumstance connected with him, the 
largest share-of the mind’s attention. Thus, of δ᾽ ἀμφὶ Πρία- 
μον καὶ Πάνθοον ἠδὲ Θυμοίτην, Δάμπον τ Κλυτίον θ᾽, ᾿Ικετάονα 
τ᾽, tov” Agnoc. Priam and Panthous and Thymoetes, and 
Lampus and Clytius, and Hicetaon, offspring of Mars. So 
also: τρὶς γὰρ τῇ γ᾽ ἐλθόντες ἐπειρήσανθ᾽ οἱ ἄριστοι, ἀμφ᾽ Αἴαντε 
᾿δύω καὶ ἀγακλυτὸν ᾿Ιδομενῆα, for thrice have the bravest warriors 
advancing assailed it, the two Ajaces, and the distinguished Ido- 
meneus.—Thirdly. It denotes, especially in later writers, the 
companions, &c. of the person named, without himself; as, 
of ἀμφὶ Παρμενίδην καὶ Ζήνωνα ἑταῖροι, the friends of Parmeni- 
des and Zeno. 10. From these must be distinguished, how- 
ever, the cases in which the preposition is not followed by a 
proper name, but by another substantive, or when the article 
is neuter. Thus, of ἀμφὶ τὴν θήραν, the hunters; τὰ ἀμφὶ τὸν 
πόλεμον, what belongs to war, &c. (vid. preposition περὶ). 


221 


111. In composition it has the general force of about, round 
about; as, ἀμφιβάλλω, I throw around. Sometimes it has the 
meaning of ἀμφοτέρωθεν, on both sides; as, ἀμφίβροτος, defend- 
ang on every side, (1. 6. defending round about). 


° Ext. 


The original meaning of this preposition is close upon, and 
it is joined with the genitive, dative, and accusative. When 
it is followed by a genitive, it conveys, together with its own 
original meaning, the several ideas denoted by the genitive 
case ; such as, part of time, part of place, something proceed- 
ing from, &c. something emanating from, &c. and it may ge- 
nerally be rendered by the phrase in respect of. With the 
dative there is a constant reference to continuance, or rest in, 
upon, or with, an object; with the accusative, motion or di- 
rection towards. These three respective meanings of the ge- 
nitive, dative, and accusative, when combined eacly in turn 
with the primitive signification of ἐπὶ, produce the following 
results. ‘Thus, 

I. With the genitive. 1. ἐπὶ Κύρου, under Cyrus, (i. 6. close 
upon in respect of Cyrus ; referring to power proceeding from, 
and exercised by, Cyrus). 2. ἐπὶ τῆς αὐτοῦ ἀρχῆς, under his 
government, (i. 6. close upon tn respect of his government). 3. 
ἐπὶ τῶν πράξεων, by deeds, (i. 6. close upon in respect of deeds ; 
referring to some effect proceeding from them). 4. ἐπὶ κέρως 
ἄγειν, to lead an army by one of its wings, (i. 6. close upon in 
respect of a wing ; referring to part of general place). 5. ἐφ᾽ 
éautod, by himself, (i. 6. close upon in respect of himself). 6. 
ἐπὶ τῆς γῆς καταπίπτειν, to fall upon the ground, (1. 6. close upon 
in respect of the ground ; referring to part of place). 7. ἐπὶ 
τῶν “Ἑλληνικῶν πόλεων, among the Grecian cities, (1. e. close 
upon in respect of the Grecian cities ; the reference being the 
same as in the preceding example). 8. ἐπὶ πολλῶν, among ma- 
ny things, (i. e. close upon in respect of many things; same 
reference). 9. ἐπὶ τῶν ἱερῶν ὀμόσαι, to swear by the sacred vic- 
tums, (i. 6. standing near, close by, the victims). 10. ἐπὲ τοσού- 
των μαρτύρων, before so many witnesses, (i. e. near to, close by, 
so many witnesses). 11. ἐπ᾽ ἀμφισβητήτου ἀποδείξεως, by in- 
dubitable proof, (i. 6. close upon, in the immediate vicinity of, 
&c.) 12. of én’ ἐξουσίας, persons in office, magistrates, (i. e 
close upon authority). 13. ἀποπλέοντας én’ οἴκου, sailing di- 
rectly homewards, (i. 6. close upon home). 14. ἡ ἐπὶ τῆς πόλεως 
ὁδὸς, the road to the city, (i. 6. close upon, leading directly down 
upon, the city). Perhaps in these two last examples the geni- ' 


222 4 


tive and not the accusative is used, by reason of an obscure 
reference to motion from. Thus, to sail homewards implies 
a previous departure from home; and a road leading éo0 a city, 
is to the inhabitants a road leading from it). 15, ἐπὶ τριῶν, 
ἐπὶ τεττάρων, by three, by four at a time, or, three deep, four 
deep, (i. 6. close upon three, close upon four; in other words, 
each number of three or four following close after the one that 
went before it). : 

II. With the dative, 1. ἐφ᾽ ᾧ, on which condition, (1. e. close 
upon and remaining firmly in which). 2. ἐπὶ τούτῳ, during 
this time, (i. 6. close, upon and continuing connected with this 
period of time). 3. ἐπὶ τούτοις, in addition to these, besides, 
(i. 6. close upon and connected with these). 4. ἐπὶ τῷ κέρδει, 
for gain, (i. e. close upon and connected with the purpose of 
gain). 5. ἐπὶ πολλῳ, at a high rate, (i. 6. close upon and conti- 
nuing ina high rate). 6. ἐπὶ τῷ παντὶ Blo, for his whole life, 
(i. e. close upon and not deviating from the course of his whole 
life). 7. ἐπὶ νηπίω μοι τέθνηκεν, he died leaving me yet a child, 
(i. 6. his death happened close upon the period when I was still 
remaining in a state of childhood). 8. éq ἡμῖν ὑπάρχει, it de- 
pends on us, (i. 6. it is closely and intunately connected with our 
means). 9. ἐπὶ μοί ἐστι, it is in my power, (i. 6. it is closely 
and intimately connected with my ability to perform). 10. ἄλ- 
λοι ἐπ᾽ ἄλλοις, one after another, (i. 6. adhering closely one to 
the other). 11. ὁ ἐπὶ πᾶσι ταχθεὶς, he that was statroned last 
of all, (i. e. he that was stationed close upon and in tmmediate 
connexion with all the rest of the army). 12. ἐπὶ τῷ πατρὶ 
ὠνόμασε, he named him after his father, (i. e. his name was 
closely, or immediately, identified with that of his father, and 
remained $0). 13. ἐπὶ τοσούτῳ στρατεύματι, with such an army, 
(i. 6. close upon and continuing in connexion with such an army 
as the instrument of action). 14. ἐπὶ Τρώεσσι μάχεσθαι, to 
fight with the Trojans, (i. 6. to remain fighting in close combat 
with the Trojans). 15. ἐφ᾽ ἡμέρα, for the whole day, (i. 6. in 
immediate and continued connection with the day). 16. ἐπὶ τῷ 
ποταμῷ, along the river, (i. 6. close upon and not departing from 
the river). 

III. With the accusative. 1. ἐπὶ τὴν Artix ἐπορεύετο, he 
went to Attica, (i. 6. close upon and in the direction of Attica). 
2. ἐπὶ ποσὸν, for how much, (i. e.close upon and tending towards 
how much). 3. ἐπὶ τὴν aiar, on the ground, (i. 6. close upon 
and in the direction of the ground). 4. ἐπὶ τὴν ἑστίαν καθίζεσθαι, 
to be seated on the hearth, (i. e. to be seated close upon the 
hearth, with the eyes earnestly directed towards it as the source 
of safety and refuge). 5. τὴν πόλιν ἐφ᾽ ἑαυτὸν ποιήσασθαι, to 


223 


bring the city under subjection to himself, (i. e. to bring the city 
into close connection as regards himself. ‘The middle voice 
here carries with it the additional idea of its being done, for 
himself, for his own private advantage). 6. ἑαυτὸν, ἐπ᾽ ἐξου- 
σίαν ποιήσασθαι, to establish himself in power, (to make him- 
self close upon, and to direct all his movements towards, the 
acquisition of, authority). 7, ἐπὶ τὰς ἡδονὰς στρατεύομαυ, I make 
war upon pleasures, (i. 6.1 engage in close warfare against 
pleasures). 

IV. In composition, ἐπὶ denotes, 1. addition; as, ἐπιδίδωμε, 
1 give in addition, (i. e. I give or place something upon a pre- 
vious gift). 2. increase or augmentation ; as, ἐπώδυνος, caus- 
ing increased pain, (i. 6. producing pain upon former pain; or, 
causing pain upon pain). 3. It denotes likewise reciprocal 
action ; as, ἐπιγαμία, intermarriage, (i. Θ. one’s marrying ano- 
ther, upon that other’s agreeing to marry him): ἐπιβοήθεια, mu- 
tual assistance, (i. e. one’s aiding another upon, or in conse- 
quence of, that other’s having aided him). 4. It most com- 
monly has in composition, however, the force of thereupon, de- 
noting that one action takes place in consequence of another 
which has preceded it. . 


Meta. 


The original meaning of this preposition is with, and it is 
followed by the genitive, dative, and accusative. When con- 
strued with the genitive, it takes nearly the same sense as 
σὺν with the dative, except that σὺν indicates a nearer. and 
more intimate union. Whatever is with, in company with, any 
person or thing, in a strict sense depends on or from that per- 
son or thing; hence μετὰ takes the genitive in this sense ; 
whereas σὺν implies that the object is an integral part of ano- 
ther, something inherent in it, and therefore takes the dative, 
as expressing that in or on which any thing rests. When 
construed with the dative, which is an usage confined solely 
to the Poets, μδτὰ signifies among, between, in, by. With the 
accusative, it indicates direction behind, after, in the rear of a 
thing. It is so used, partly of place, and partly of time; since 
events which succeed each other in time, constitute a series 
of objects following after each other. _ 

I. With the genitive. 1. μετ’ ἐμοῦ, with me. 2. μδτὰ καιροῦ, 
according to circumstances, (i. e. in conjunction with a suitable 
opportunity). 3. mer ἀρετῆς πρωτεύειν, to excel by means of 
virtue, (i. 6. tn conjunction with, and in consequence of the 
aid resulting from, the practice of virtue). 4. In Homer, μετὰ, 
with a genitive and neuter verb, denotes together with ; in com- 


224 


mon with ; as, μετὰ δμώων nive καὶ ἦσθ᾽, he drank and ate to- 
gether, or, in common, with his servants. Homer never uses 
it, when followed by the genitive, with any other than a neu- 
ter verb. Subsequent writers, however, join it, when a geni- 
tive follows, with an active verb, in order to express the joint 
action of two or more persons ; as, ἤλασε, τοὺς ἐναγεῖς Κλεο- 
μένης μετὰ Abavalar, Cleomenes, in conjunction with the Athe- 
nians, drove out the polluted. Thucydides. 5. In Plutarch, 
Alex. 77. there is a deviation, in the construction of “été, from 
previous usage; as, τὴν Στάτειραν προσαγαγοῦσα μετὰ τῆς 
ἀδελφῆς ἀπέκτεινε, having led forth Statira, she slew her toge- 
ther with her sister. 

II. With a dative, as has been remarked, μετὰ occurs only 
in the Poets: as, 1. ὕφαινε μετὰ φρεσὶν, he planned in his mind. 
Hesiod. (i. e. he planned together with his mind, and kept at 
the same time his deliberations concealed within his own 
breast). 2. χαῖταν δ᾽ ἐῤῥώοντο μετὰ avons ἀνέμοιο, his locks 
were agitated by the blast. Homer. (1. 6. kept floating with the 
blast, or, amid the blast). 

Ill. With an accusative. 1. wet ἀμύμονα IInhelwrva, next 
after the valiant son of Peleus. 2. ust ἀμύμονας “«ἰθιοπῆας, to 
the good Aithopians, (1. 6. going after, seeking for, journeying 
towards them). 3. In the Attic writers it is joined with ἡμέρα ; 
thus, μεθ᾽ ἡμέραν, in the day-time. Hurip.—psra τρίτην ἡμέραν, 
on the third day. Plato.—ovrs νυκτὸς odte μεθ᾽ ἡμέραν, neither 
by night nor by day. Plato. ‘The principle on which the use 
of the accusative here depends has been explained in the in- 
troductory remarks on this preposition. 4. μετὰ χεῖρας ἔχειν, 
to have in one’s hands. vid. Introductory Remarks. 

IV. In composition it denotes, 1. change; as, μετατέθημι, 1 
transpose, I change the place of a thing, (i.e. 1 put a thing in 
a place, after having previously put it in some other place). 
So also metadoxéw, I change my opinion, (i. 6. 1 think, after 
having previously thought; I think again, or anew). In the 
same way may be explained every verb compounded with we- 
τὰ and indicating change. 2. reciprocity; as, μετάγγελος, a 
messenger sent between two parties. 


Παρὰ. 

The primary meaning of this preposition seems to regard 
one thing placed along side of another. It is construed with 
the genitive, dative, and accusative. With the genitive, it is 
properly used in reference to an object, which comes from the 


near vicinity of another, and, in prose, is usually connected 
only with words which imply animated existence. With the 


225 


dative, it properly signifies near, by the side of. With the ac- 
cusative, it denotes motion towards, to, or by the side of, or, in 
the near vicinity of any thing. Thus, 

I. With the genitive. 1. ἐλθεῖν παρὰ τινος, to come from any 
one. 2. ἀγγέλλειν παρὰ τινος, to announce on the part of ἡ one. 
3. μανθάνειν παρὰ τινος, to learn from any one. 4. ἡ παρὰ τού- 
tay δὔνοια, the kindness of those persons, (i. e. proceeding from, 
shown by, them). 5. of παρὰ τοῦ "Νικίου, the messengers of Ni- 
cias, (i. 6. those from Nicias). 6. κατηγορεῖταν παρὰ των * Iov- 
δαίων, he 1s accused by the Jews, (i. 6. the accusation against 
him proceeds from the Jews). 

II. With the dative. 1. παρὰ τῷ βασιλεῖ, with the king, (i. 6. 
near to, by, or on the side of, the king). 2. παρὰ σοὶ, with you, or, 
on You, OF, In your power. 3. παρὰ μνηστῆρσιν, among the 
suitors. 

III. With the accusative. 1. παρὰ νῆας, towards the ships. 2. 
παρὰ Καμβύσεα, to Cambyses. 3. παρ᾽ ὅλον χὴν βίον, through 
one’s whole life, (i. 6. moving parallel with the whole course of 
one’s life). 4. παρὰ τὴν πόσιν, in drinking, (1. 6. accompanying 
drinking, moving by the side of it). 5. παρ᾽ αὐτὰ τὰ ἀδικήματα, 
at the very moment of the unjust transaction, (i. e. moving on 
at the sede, or in the near vicinity, of the unjust transaction). 
6. παρὰ τὴν φύσιν, contrary to nature, (1. 6. passing by nature, 
disregarding it). 7. παρὰ τὸ δίκαιον, contrary to justice, (i. e. 
passing by justice). 8. παρ᾽ ὥραν, unseasonably, (i. 6. passing 
by a proper season). 9. παρ᾽ ἀξίαν, undeservedly, (i. e. passing 
by desert). 10. παρὰ τὰ ἄλλα ζῶα, beyond all other animals, 
(i. 6. passing by, or beyond, all other animals). 11. οὐκ ἔστι 
παρὰ ταῦτ᾽ ἄλλα, there is nothing else besides this, (i. e. there 
is nothing accompanying it, nothing moving at the side; it is 
by itself). 12, παρὰ τὴν ὑμετέραν ἀμέλειαν, on account of your 
negligence, (i. €. moving on in the near vicinity of your negli- 
gence, accompanying your negligence, attendant upon it as a 
consequence). 13. παρὰ τοῦτο, in consequence of this, (i. e. 
attendant upon this as a natural consequence). 14. παρὰ πολὺ, 
by much, (i. e. moving on by the side of much). 15. παρ᾽ ddt- 
γον, by little. 16. παρὰ μικρὸν ἦλθεν ἀποθανεῖν, he had nearly 
lost his life, (i. e. he came close to the side of a little, &c.) 17. 
παρὰ πολὺ ἑλέσθαν τὴν πόλιν ἦλθεν, he was far from taking the 
city, (i. e. he came close to the side of much, &c.) 18. παρὰ 
τοσοῦτον, by so much, so far. 19. mag’ ὀλίγον ποιεῖσθαι, to think 
little of. 20. παρὰ μῆνα τρίτον, every third month. 21. nag 
ἥμεραν, every day. 

IV. In composition it frequently marks, 1. a faulty, or de- 
fective action ; as, παραβαίνω, I transgress, (i, 6. 1 pass by, I 

20* 


226 


disregard): παραβλέπω, I see imperfectly, (i. 6. 1 look aside : 
I do not look full at an object). 2. It signifies aside; as, 
παρένθεσις, insertion, (i.e. something put in by the side of other 
thing 3. a near equality ; as, παρόμοιος, nearly alike, (i. 6 
by the Side, near to the state, of being alike). It has also many 
other meanings, but they all flow so easily and naturally from 
the primitive as not to require any particular mention here. 


: . Περὶ. 


The original signification of this preposition is about, 
around. It serves to express the idea of surrounding or in- 
closing on all sides ; and consequently differs from παρὰ, which 
merely denotes previous proximity, i. e. on one side. When 
construed with the genitive, it is commonly to be translated 
by of, concerning, about, all of which, in their primitive signi- 
fication, are properly used in relation to any thing proceeding 
from one object towards another. With the dative, there is, 
besides the primitive force of περὶ, the idea of rest or continu- 
ance ; with the accusative, there is a reference to motion on or 
upon. ‘Thus, 

I. With the genitive. 1. περὶ τινος λέγειν, 10 speak of, or, 
concerning any one. (Insuch cases, the person speaking con- 
ceives himself as being eat or around the object ; inasmuch as 
he has brought it within the compass of his knowledge, and 
has made it his own, either by actual inspection or contem- 
plation ; and then what he says, comes, as it were, from the 
object). 2. μάχεσθαι περὶ πατρέδος, to fight for one’s country, 
(i. 6. to fight rownd about one’s country, in consequence of a 
right to demand our aid which naturally proceeds from her). 
3. τυραννίδος πέρι, for the sake of power, (1. e. acting, carrying 
on operations, round about power, in consequence of some at- 
tractive charm proceeding from it). 4. ποιεῖσθαν περὶ πολλοῦ, 
to value highly, (i. e. to act, or employ one’s self, about a thing, 
in consequence of a great value emanating from it). 5. ἡγεῖσ. 
θαι περὶ μικροῦ, to think little of, (1. 6. to think of a thing in 
respect of a slight advantage proceeding from it; to think 
slightly of it). 6. περὶ πολλοῦ ἐστὶν ἡμῖν, he is of great impor- 
tance to us, (i. e. he is round about to us in respect of a great 
advantage ; in other words, we keep round about him in con- 
sequence of a great advantage which is to result). 7. In Ho- 
mer περὶ with the genitive denotes superiority ; as, περὶ πάν- 
tov ἔμμεναι ἄλλων, to be above all others. Perhaps this pecu- 
liar meaning may have arisen in the following manner: To 
be round about all, implies superior activity, care, attention, 


227 


&c. and if πάντων ἄλλων, in the genitive, imply that this acti- 
vity, care, attention, &c. are exerted in consequence of a re- 
quest or a tacit consent proceeding from all the rest, who are 
conscious of the superiority of the individual in these respects, 
hence may be deduced the kindred idea of general pre-emi- 
nence on his part. 

II. With the dative. 1. 28g] τῆ χειρὶ χρυσοῦν δακτύλιον φέρειν, 
to wear a golden ring on his hand, (i. e. round about, and re- 
maining on, the hand). 2. περὶ γὰρ dls ποιμένι λαῶν, for he 
feared for the shepherd of the people, (i.e. his fears were active 
round about and remained continually connected with, &c.). 
3. περὶ φόδῳ, from fear, (i. 6. remaining round about fear ; be- 
ing directly under its influence). 

III. With the accusative. 1. ὥκουν Φοίνικες πὲρι πᾶσαν τὴν 
Σικελίαν, Phoenicians dwelt in the whole of Sicily, round about. 
(The circumstance of their dwelling in the island implies a 
previous coming to it, and hence the use of the accusative). 
2. περὶ τούτους τοὺς χρύνους, about this time, (i. e. round about, 
and advancing towards, this point of time). 3. περὶ λύχνων 
ἀφὰς, about night-fall; literally, about the hour of lighting 
lamps. 4. περὶ τρισχιλίους, about three thousand, (i. e. round 
about, and verging towards, three thousand). 5. ἐξαμαρτάνειν 
περὶ τινα, to offend against any one, (i. 6. to offend about, and 
towards or against, one). 5. λέγειν πέρι τι, to speak upon any 
subject, (i. 6. to speak about and upon it). 6. περὶ τι sivas, to 
be occupied about any thing, (i. e.to be about, and to direct one’s 
efforts towards, any thing). 7. It is used in circumlocution 
with a proper name, like dugi; as, of περὶ Σωκράτην, Socrates, 
or Socrates and his disciples, or the scholars and friends of So- 
crates.) See the remarks on ἀμφὶ when thus construed). 8 
In circumlocutions with nouns that are not proper names ; as, 
τὰ περὶ τὴν dostiy, virtue, the same as ἀρετὴ alone. So also, 
οἱ περὶ φιλοσοφίαν, those who study philosophy : οἱ περὶ πὴν θή- 
ραν, the hunters: &c. 

IV. In composition περὶ often strengthens the sense; as, 
περίεργος, performing any action with extraordinary care and 
diligence, (i. e. being carefully engaged in examining round 
about it, and in seeing that nothing is left undone). So also 
περιαλγὴς afflicted deeply, (i. e. remaining round about sorrow; . 
not leaving it). 2. In general, however, it has the meaning 
of round about, as well as the other shades of meaning which 
immediately result fromit. Thus, πδριαιρέω, 7 take away what 
is round about: περιβαίνω, I walk round about; meguagyvedo, 
I silver over: περιείδω, I contemplate, &c. 


228 
Πρὸς. 


This preposition, in its original signification, is used to ex- 
press that from which any thing proceeds or emanates towards 
one’s self. Hence it accords in this signification with the 
genitive, and is joined to it. It is followed also by the dative 
and accusative. When construed with the dative, it has the 
same original meaning as παρὰ, but more commonly means, 
in the immediate vicinity of. With the accusative, it indicates 
direction from any thing to, or towards, another. Thus, 

I. With the genitive. 1. τὸ ποιεύμενον πρὸς Aaxsdamoriwy, 
that which has been done by the Lacedemonians, (referring to 
an act proceeding or emanating from them). 2. πρὸς ἀνδρὸς 
σοφοῦ ἐστὶ, it 1s the part of a wise man, (i. 6. it hangs or de- 
pends from, it forms part of, a wise man’s duty). 3. πρὸς θυμοῦ, 
of his free will, cordially, (i. e. spontaneously emanating from his 
own breast). 4. εἶναν πρὸς τινὸς, to be on any one’s side, (i. 6. to 
hang upon, or from, one). 5. πρὸς τινὸς εἶναι, to be an advan- 
tage to any one, (i. e. to proceed or emanate from any thing 
towards one). 6. πρὸς πατρὸς, on the father’s side ; πρὸς μητ- 
90s, on the mother’s side, (i. e. to hang or depend from, &c.) 7. 
οἱ πρὸς αἵματος, the relations, (i. 6. they whom an intimacy re- 
gards which proceeds from blood). 8. It is used in oaths and 
entreaties ; aS, Καὶ σὲ πρὸς τοῦ σοῦ τέκνου καὶ θεῶν ἐκνοῦμαιν, and 
I conjure you by your son and by the gods, (i. 6. by that pater- 
nal feeling which may be said.to proceed from your son, and by 
that feeling of veneration which may be said to emanate from 
the Gods, as the exciting causes of these respective emotions). 
9. τὼ 0 αὐτὼ μάρτυροι ἔστων πρὸς τε θεῶν μακάρων, πρός τε θνη- 
τῶν ἀνθρώπων, and let them both themselves be witnesses before 
the blessed gods and before mortal men, (i. e. let them testify 
truly to the fact, on account of that feeling of respect which 
they must naturally have as well for the gods as for the rest of 
their own species. Here the feeling may be said to emunate 
from the gods and from men, as equally the exciting causes of it). 

II. With adative. 1. πρὸς τούτοις, in addition to these things, 
(i. 6. remaining in the immediate vicinity of these things, and 
consequently added to, or united with, them). 2. γένεσθαν πρὸς 
τοῖς πράγμασι, to be occupied with business, (i. 6. to be in the 
immediate vicinity of business and to remain therein). 3. πρὸς 
τοῖς κριταίς, with, or before the judges, (i. 6. in their immediate 
neignbourhood or presence). 

Ill. With an accusative. 1. πρὸς πατέρα τὸν σὸν, to or 
towards your father. 2. πρὸς μακρὸν "Ολυμπον, towards vist 
Olympus, 3. σκοπεῖν πρὸς τι, to look to, or consider, any thing. 


229 


4. πρὸς λόγον, with regard to the matter. 5. πρὸς τὸ βέλτιστον, 
for the best, (i. 6. directed towards that which is best). 6. πρὸς 
οὐδὲν, on no account, (i.e. directed towards, referring to, no con- 
sideration). 7. πρὸς ταῦτα, on this account ; accordingly. 8. 
πρὸς τὸ μέγεθος τῆς πόλεως, in comparison with the size of the 
city, (i.e. with reference to the size of the city). 9. πρὸς ὕβριν, 
with a contumelious manner, (i. 6. looking towards, resembling; 
insolence of manner). 10. οὐ πρὸς τοὺς ὑμετέρους λόγους, not 
according to your words, or, not taking your words as a pattern. 
11. πρὸς δαίμονα, against the will of the god, (i. 6. looking 
boldly towards the god ; facing and opposing his decrees). 

IV. In composition it generally signifies, 1. addition ; as, 
προσδίδωμι, 1 give in addition; I give besides. 2. towards; as, 
προσπλέω, I sail towards. 3. against; as, προσπταίω, I stumble 
against. 4. clearness, or adaptation ; as, προσστέλλω, I put on 
a garment, making it fit closely around the body, (i. 6. 1 bring 
it nearer to the body). : 


“Ὑπὸ. 


This preposition is used in its original meaning, in refer- 
ence to an object which comes from the under part of another 
object. In its common use it 15 connected with passive verbs, 
in order to mark the subject from which the action proceeds, 
or in whose power it was that the action should or should not 
take place. It is evident that ὑπὸ implies more than παρὰ, or 
even ἀπὸ, since it always expresses efficiency in connexion with 
design, purpose, &c. while with παρὰ it often remains unde- 
termined whether the action is the result of design, &c. or 
not. With the dative ὑπὸ denotes continuance under, indicat- 
ing submission, subjection, and also,in a stronger manner than 
the genitive, the instrument by (i. e. under the abiding influ- 
ence of) which, ἃ certain effect is produced. With the accu- 
sative ὑπὸ properly expresses local direction towards the under 
part of any thing, under, &c. Thus, 

I. With the genitive, 1. τύπτεσθαι ὑπό τινος, to be struck by 
any one (referring to its being wader the control of him from 
whom the blow proceeded, whether he should give it or not). 
2. ἀποθανεῖν ὑπὸ τινος, to be slain by any one. 3. ὑπὸ ἀγγέλων 
φράζειν, to tell by messengers, (i. 6. to tell from under the lips 
of messengers). 4. ὑπὸ κήρυκος, by means of a herald. 5. ὑπὸ 
μαστίγων, by means of whips, (i. e. by means of the effect re- 
sulting from any thing being placed under the action of whips). 

II. With the dative, 1. ὑπὸ μάστιγι, by means. τ or with, @ 
whip. 2. ὑπὸ κήρυκι, by a herald. 3. ὑπὸ μάρτυσι, by witnesses. 
3. ὑπὸ τινι εἶναι, to be in subjection to one, (i. €. to remain under 


230 


one’s authority). 4. ὑπὸ σοφωτάτῳ Χείρωνι τεθραμμένος, brought 
up under the mest wise Chiron. In these, and in every other 
instance of ὑπὸ being construed with the dative, there will be 
found more or less reference to an action which has lasted for 
some space of time. 

III. With an accusative. 1. ὑπὸ τὴν γῆν ἱέναι, to go under 
the earth. 2. ὑπὸ τὴν ἕω, towards the east, (1. 6. towards that 
region of the world which lies beneath the eastern sky). 3. ὑπ’ 
αὐγὰς ὁρᾷν τι, to examine any thing at the light, (i. 6. to bring it 
to,and examine it under, the light). 4. ὑπὸ τὴν εἰρήνην, on the 
eve of the peace, (i. ὃ. just beginning to move under, and feel the 
influence of, peace. Like the preposition sud in Latin, with 
the accusative). 5. ὑπὸ τοὺς αὐτοὺς χρόνους, about the same 
time, (1. Θ. just moving under, and being acted upon by, the same 
space of time). 6. ὑπὸ τι, ἐπ some measure, somewhat, (i. e. 
moving under and acted upon by an object in some degree). 

IV. In composition ὑπὸ retains the above significations ; but 
often imports likewise, 1. decrease or diminution ; as, ὑπογελῶ, 
I smile, (i. 6, 1 keep under a laugh): ὑποβρέχω, I moisten a 
little, (i. 6. 1 moisten in a degree under, or less than, what is 
usual or requisite): ὑπολαύνω, I urge on gently, (i. 6. 1 urge on 
in a degree under, or less violent than, what is usual or might 
be required). 2. privacy ; as, ὑπάγω, J withdraw privately ; I 
retire, (i.e. 1 lead under or concealed from observation, I with- 
draw from observation, whether it be nryself or another). 3. 
the beginning of an action; as, ὑποφαύσκω, to begin to shine, 
(i. 6. to shine a little ; to shine under, or with less brilliancy 
than, its full power; not to have attained as yet its meridian 
splendour). 


General Remarks on the Prepositions. 


Obs. 1. Prepositions are often used in an adverbial sense, their case 
being understood; especially é in Ionic, signifying amongst others, 
amongst them, &c. according as the context requires. So also πρός in 
Attic, implying besides, particularly. 

Obs. 2. Hence in Ionic writers they are often put twice, once without 
a case, adverbially, and again with a case, or 1n composition with a 
verb; as, av’ δ᾽ ᾿᾽Οδυσεὺς πολύμητις ἀνίστατο, wp arose the sage Ulysses. Ho- 
mer. ‘Ey δὲ καὶ ἐν Μέμφι, among others, in Memphis also. Herod. 

Obs. 3. In composition with verbs, the prepositions are always used 
adverbially. Hence in the old state of the language, in Homer and 
Herodotus, it is customary to find the preposition and the verb separat- 
ed by other words, and the former sometimes coming immediately af- 
ter the verb; as, ἡμῖν ἀπὸ λοιγὸν αμῦναι. Homer. ᾿Απὸ μὲν cewiirév ὥὦλεσας, 
Herodotus. In these and other similar cases, this is not properly ἃ 
Tmesis, 1. 6. the separation of a word at that time used in its compound- 
ed form; but the prepositions at that time served really as adverbs, 


231 


which were put either immediately before, or afterthe verbs. Latterly, 
however, particularly in Attic, the composition became more close, and 
the prepositions were considered as a part of the verb, In Attic wri- 
ters the proper tmesis is extremely rare. Otherwise, however, a simple 
verb is sometimes put, and with ita sprepasition with its case, where, 
on other occasions, a verb compounded with that preposition is put; as, 
ὑπέρ τινα ἔχειν for ὑπερέχειν Τινα. 

Obs. 4. The prepositions are often separated from their case; as, ἐν 
γὰρ σε τῇ νυκτὶ ταύτῃ ἀναιρομαι. In Attic this takes place, according to 
rule, with the conjunctions μέν, δέ, γὰρ οὖν; as, ἐν μὲν εἰρήνῃ, ἐν μὲν γὰρ ei- 
ρήνῃ, ἐς μὲν οὖν τὰς ᾿Αθήνας; and with πρός, with the genitive, when it sig- 
nifies per. é 

Obs. 5. Prepositions likewise are often put after their case; as, νεῶν 
ἄπο καὶ κλισιάων, particularly in the Ionic and Doric writers, and in the 
Attic poets. This takes place, in the Attic prose writers, only in περί 
with the genitive, of which the instances are ‘requelilay 

Obs. 6. When a preposition should stand twice with two different 
nouns, it is often put only once by the Poets, and that too with the se- 
cond noun; as, ἢ ddds ἢ ἐπὶ γῆς. Homer. Lyiori δ᾽ δδος ἐς ταὐτὸ Δελφῶν κἀπὸ 
Δαυλίας ἄγει. Sophocles. 

Obs. Ἵ. Prepositions which mark a removal, derivation, or motion 
from a place, viz. ἀπὸ, and ἐκ, as well as those which signify motion to 
a place, as eis, are often interchanged with those which mark rest ina 
place, as ἐν, and vice versa. 


Conjunctions and Adverbial Conjunctions, which 


govern the 
INDICATIVE. 
Aids, εἴθε, I wish, before the | “Iva, where. 

Past Tenses. "Iva, that, Imp. Fut. Aor. 
Aitinea,? as soon as. Καίπερ, although. 
"Azou and μέχρι, as far as. Méoge, until 
Εἴπερ, although. “Μὴ, lest. 

’ Exei,3 “οπου, whilst. 
᾿Επείπερ, afer, since. ἤοφρα, whilst. Past. 
᾿Επείτοι, | 
OPTATIVE. 
Aide, εἴθ ἡ 
&, εἴθε, I wish, Present, and Ἵνα, that, Past. 
Fut. Ogoe, 


Interrog. Participles, with &.| Πῶς ἂν, how ? 


1. Aide, cide, and other Particles, are sometimes joined with the Im- 
perfect and 2d Aorist of ὀφείλω, as até’ ὄφελες ἄγονος τ᾽ ἐμέναι, Hom. 

2. Αὐτίκα introduces also an example or instance of any thing that 
has been said; for instance; as for example. 

3. ᾿Επεὶ is used elliptically, before both the indicative and imperative, 
especially when what is spoken appears so certain that the person ad- 
dressed may be defied to dispute it. As, ἐπεὶ ἀπόκριναι, “ For (if it be not 
80) answer me.” 


232 


| SUBJUNCTIVE. _ 

Ay, ἐὰν, ny, if. Κἂν, altogether. 
᾿Επὰν, ἐπειδὰν, since. “Ὅπως, how, that. 
"Eas, ἂν, until. “Ὅταν, whenever. 
“Hyneg, although. "Ogee, whilst, Pr. 
"Ive, Πρὶν ἂν, before. 
LOgoe, ὲ that, Pr. and Fut. | ἂν, that. 

INDICATIVE and OPTATIVE. 
“Ox, that. | οπως, how, that. 

> 
INDICATIVE, OPTATIVE, and SUBJUNCTIVE. 

"Azo, μέχρι, until. “Ὁπότε, 
El, if. ~ “Ὁπόταν, thon 
Μὴ, forbidding.” “Ὅτε, 


Μήπως, lest. 3 
INDICATIVE, OPTATIVE, SUBJUNCTIVE, and 
~ INFINITIVE. 


Πρὶν, before. 
“ἧς, that. 


“Ay, κα,3 Potential. 
"Eos, as long as. 
“Μήποτε, lest. 


INDICATIVE, OPTATIVE, and INFINITIVE. 


᾿Επειὴ, “Note, so that. 
᾿Επειδὴ, 


1. Ἐπ and ὅτε are used by the Dramatic Poets with the Indicative and 
Optative only. By Homer εἰ is used with the Subjunctive also, joined 
to ἂν or xe. Ki γὰρ with the Indicative and Optative is used for wtinam. 

When εἰ is used with an Imp. or an Aor. Indicative, the Verb in the 
corresponding clause, preceding or following, is put in the Indic. with 
ἂν, as εἰ μὴ τότ᾽ ἐπόνουν, νῦν ἂν οὐκ εὐφραινόμην͵ Aristoph. 

2. Μὴ, forbidding, with the Present, governs the Imperative; with 
the Future the Indicative; with the Aorist, when it refers to the Past, 
the ΡΒ ; when it refers to the Future, the Subjunctive. 

3. These Particles, ἂν used in prose, and κε and κεν in verse, give a 
Potential sense to the Verb. Thus in the Imp. εἶχον signifies J had, 
εἶχον ἂν, 1 would have. In the 2d. Aor. εἶπον means I said, εἶπον ἂν, 1 
would have said. 

The Present Optative with ἂν is often used by tragic writers in the 
sense of a Future Indicative; thus μένοιμ᾽ ἂν, Soph. I will stay. 

“Ay, joined with indefinite pronouns and adjectives, signifies soever, 
as ἅπανθ' ὅν᾽ ἂν λέγω, Aristoph. Whatsoever words I may speak: ὅτι κεν 
κατανεύσω, Hom. Whatever I may nod. 

*Ay in this case follows the Noun or Particle, and precedes the Verb. 

“Av is sometimes understood ; as, ἦλθον ἐγὼ, Theocr. i. 6. ἂν, J would 
have come. | 

4, These have ἂν, expressed or understood, with the Optative. 


᾿ since. 


233 


OPTATIVE and SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Ἐπεὰν, after. | Mn, lest. 


Consunctions Postpositive are γὰρ, μὲν, 08, te, τοίνυν, 
These are Prepositive, and Postpositive, ἂν, ἄρα, δὴ, ἵνα. 
The rest are Prepositive. 


Signification of some of the Particles. 


"ρα. 1. Most common meaning therefore. 2. Where it ap- 
pears expletive it would seem, in fact, to have a meaning analo- 
gous to in the nature of things, of course, ex ordine, ὅσο. 3. 
When interrogative it has the force of num? The difference 
between ἄρ᾽ οὐ and ἄρα μὴ is, that ἄρ᾽ οὗ, nonne, requires an 
affirmative answer; ἄρα μὴ, num, a negative, as ἄρα does 
alone ; but μὴ imparts some degree of dubiousness to the ques- 
tion, and that for the purpose sometimes of irony. 

Fe is a restrictive particle. 1. Its most common meanings 
are at least, indeed, certainly, however, &c. as εἰ μὴ ὅλον, μέρος 
ye, “if not the whole, at least a part : ἔγωγε, I indeed, I at 
least, I for my part, &c. In English, however, the sense of 
γ8, in most combinations, can only be rendered by heightening 
the tone of the word to which it refers. 

Tag. For, always follows other words, in which respect it 
resembles the Latin enim. It often occurs in answers, when 
it must be referred to something not expressed, as to vai or οὗ, 
ουδὲν ϑαυμαστὸν, ὀρθῶς λέγεις, and the like. Thus, in answers, 
ἔστι γὰρ οὕτω is equivalent to yas (“ yes,”) or ὁρθῶς λέγεις (“ you 
speak rightly,”) γὰρ ἔστιν οὕτω. 

4%. In prose never begins a sentence or member of a sen- 
tence; in verse it sometimes does, but not in Attic writers ; 
1. It signifies, certainly, surely, without doubt, &c. Νῦν δὴ 
with a past tense is, just now, a little while since. 2. 'This par- 
ticle is also very commonly used in continuation of a recital, 
in which it is usually rendered igitur, then. 3. When joined 
with καὶ it signifies, now, by this time, already. καὶ δὴ is also 
used in asseverations, indeed. 

4ynov and δήπουθεν, signify 1. doubtless, of course, and also, 
2. ironically, to be sure, forsooth. 

4ῆθεν signifies 1. ἀπὸ τοῦ δὴ (i. 6. ἀπὸ τοῦ viv), forthwith, in- 
stantly. 2. It has an affirmative force, but rather in deceit and 
simulation, than in declaration of truth. Hence it may often 
be rendered, as if, forsooth, ostensibly, as was pretended. 

“ἤτα. 1. Appears to be put for δὴ, now. 2. It is used in ex- 

21 


234 


horting, beseeching, &c. yes, do, pray, Tentreat. 3. It is em- 
ployed in questions, and answers to tandem, prithee ; and 4. 
in affirmation or asseveration, indeed, truly. 

Καὶ and τὸ serve for the simple union, both of single ideas, 
and of entire parts of a proposition. ‘T’he connection by te is 
more usual in the elder and poetic language than in Attic 
prose, and generally this particle is not merely put once between 
the two ideas to be connected, but joined to each of the con- 
nected parts, as πατὴρ ἀνδρῶν τὸ ϑεῶν te. ‘This connection by 
Té—té occurs with Attic prose writers only in the union of 
strongly opposed ideas, as φέρει» χρὴ τά τὸ δαιμόνια ἀναγκαίως τά 
τὸ ἀπὸ τῶν πολεμίων ἀνδρείας. Thucyd. 2. θ4. With Homer, 
however, frequently, and, with the Attic poets, not rarely, in the 
union of kindred ideas, 1. τὸ καὶ connects more closely than 
the simple καὶ, and is chiefly used when ideas are to be repre- 
sented as united in one supposition. Hence this kind of com- 
bination is also chiefly used when opposite ideas are to be as- 
signed as closely connected, thus, χρηστοί ts καὶ πονηροί----ὠἀγαθά 
τὸ καὶ κακά, For this reason we also say ἄλλως τε καὶ, parti- 
cularly also, especially, (i. e. in other respects, on other grounds, 
and also,) because ἄλλως already expresses a natural and strong 
antithesis to that which follows. 2. καὶ---καὶ, as well—as, both 
—and. ‘This combination can only be adopted, when the com- 
bined ideas are of different kinds, but never in those which are 
perfectly homogeneous. Hence several substantives can al- 
ways be connected by zal—xal, as ἀπέκτειναν καὶ παῖδας καὶ 
yuvacxks,—but of adjectives, only those which contain nothing 
homogeneousin their idea, as ἀνθρώπους εὑρήσεις καὶ ἀγαθοὺς καὶ 
κακούς, or καὶ πένητας καὶ πλουσίους, and the like ; not πόλιες καε 
μδγάλη καὶ πολυάνθρωπος, but μεγάλη te καὶ πολυάνθρωπος. 

Μὲν. The opposition in which one member of a proposition 
stands to another can be stronger or slighter, and in both cases 
the Greeks use μέν and δέ for connection. The English 
particles indeed and but can only be used to designate the 
stronger opposition, and hence we are often deficient in de- 
finite expressions for the Greek μέν and δέ, which we then 
translate sometimes by and, also, sometimes by but, on the 
contrary, yet, sometimes by partly—partly, as well—as also, 
sometimes finally by now, moreover, and the like. 1. When μέν 
is put in the first member of a sentence, the thought necessarily 
turns to an opposite member with dé. Several cases never- 
theless occurs, where, with μέν preceding, the expected δέ 
does not actually ener. Namely, either the antithesis to the 
member found with μεόν expressly exists, but declares itself so 
clearly by the position and subject that δέ can be omitted 


230 


(this is chiefly the case when temporal and local adverbs are 
used, which stand in a natural opposition between themselves, 
as ἐνταῦθα and ἐκεῖ, πρῶτον and ἔπειτα, &c.)—or the antithesis 
is indicated by another particle, as ἀλλά, αὐτάρ, αὖτε, &c.—or 
the antithesis lies only in the mind, but is not expressly as- 
signed in the discourse. This last is chiefly the case when per- 
sonal and demonstrative pronouns are used at the beginning of 
a proposition in combination with μδν, as ἐγὼ μὲν προήρημαι, I 
have formed the resolution (another probably not.)—*ai ταῦτα 
μὲν δὴ τοιαῦτα. These things are so circumstanced (but others 
differently). 2. Although where μέν occurs δέ must be sup- 
posed to follow, yet reversely, δέ does not necessarily imply a 
preceding μέν, but can be joined, without μέν preceding, to 
every proposition containing a farther developement and di- 
vision of single consecutive circumstances, although the con- 
nection is then not so close as in the case of μέν anddé. Also, 
δὲ is frequently used at the beginning of a discourse, addresses, 
and questions, or in answers, where it always indicates an op- 
position conceived in the mind. 

IIeg. This particle is in signification intimately allied to ye, 
and denotes, conformably to its derivation from 7s@/, compre- 
hension, or inclusion, whence, like ye, it is employed to 
strengthen single ideas. It very frequently enters into com- 
bination with relative pronouns, as also with temporal, causal, 
and conditional particles, to confirm their signification. The 
sense of this particle also is generally indicated in English 
merely by a stronger intonation of the word ; although it fre- 
quently also may be translated by very, ever. In combination 
with a participle we often translate it by although, or how much 
soever. ‘Thus, λέγει, ἅπερ λέγει, δίκαια πάντα. He says all 
whatever he does say, justly —pits σὺ τόνδ᾽, ἀγαθός περ ἔων, 
ἀποαίρεο κούρην, and thou, be thou never so excellent, (i.e. how- 
ever excellent thou art) deprive him not of this virgin,—sineg, if 
at all, provided that, if indeed.—énslnse, seeing that, since.— 
καίπερ, with a participle, although. 

Πῶς, how, is an adverb of manner. It is used, 1. in inter- 
rogation, as πῶς οὐκ ἄξιός ἐστι τουτοῦ ; how can he but be worthy 
of this? 2. πῶς γὰρ and πῶς γὰρ ἄν are used elliptically after 
negative sentences, and πῶς γὰρ οὔ after affirmative sentences, 
as ἐκεῖνα μὲν ἄξια χάριτος καὶ ἐπαίνου κρίνω, πῶς γὰρ οὔ; I judge 
those things deserving of thanks and praise; for how can I 
judge otherwise? of course I judge them so. 3. 'This particle, 
even not interrogatively used, retains its accent, when it sig- 
nifies, in some certain manner, emphatically. And when, in 
this sense, πῶς μὲν»----χτῶς δὲ are opposed, in one manner, in 


236 


another manner, Or, in some respects, in other respects, cus- 
tom retains the circumflex, although analogy requires πὼς μὲν, 
πὼς 08, &c. ‘The circumflex is also retained when πῶς signi- 
fies, how, in what manner, without a question. But when it 
signifies indeterminately, in some manner or other; some how ; 
in a manner ; it becomes an enclitic, and loses its accent. 

Ποῦ signifies 1. where? 2. whither? 3. It retains its cir- 
cumflex accent, even when used materially, as τὸ γὰρ ποῦ αὐτό 
τέ ἐστί τι, κ. τ. Δ. Aristot. although analogy would require it to 
be written ποὺ. ~- 

Tov, an enclitic, signifies, 1. Any where, or somewhere. 2. 
It is used in speaking of things with some degree of uncer- 
tainty and caution, probably, perhaps, as I guess, if I mistake 
not, &c. 

Τάχα. ‘The primary signification is quickly, speedily, soon. 
This is its only sense in Homer. Next it signifies perhaps, 
and is used as synonymous with ἔσως by Plato and others. ‘To 
augment its signification, it is joined with other equivalent 
words, as τάχ᾽ ἂν, δὶ τυχοι, καὶ τοῦτον ἠδίκει. Demosth. τάχα δ᾽ 
ἂν tows οὐκ ἐθέλοι. Aristoph. — 

Toi, an enclitic, rarely standing alone, except in poetry, sig- 
nifies truly, surely, certainly, at least, indeed. It is more fre- 
quently compounded with conjunctions and particles, 1. with 
δὴ and ἢ ; as, ἤτοι, δήτοι, having nearly the same signification 
as the simple tov. 2. With οὐ, as οὔτοι, certainly not, assuredly 
not, not at all. 3. With γὰρ and οὐν, as τοιγὰρ, τοιγάρτοε, tory ag- 
οὖν, therefore, hence, on this account. 4. With νυν, as τοίνυν, 
therefore, wherefore, ὅσο. ‘This particle τοὶ is. properly the old 
dative case (when ὁ was used for ὦ, the latter not having been 
as yet introduced into the alphabet, and when the adscript ὁ 
was used, if indeed it were not always). Hence τοὶ is equiva- 
lent to τῷ. 

Ὥς. This particle has various uses. 1. It is elegantly con- 
strued with participles in the genitive; as περὶ Θαΐδος φησὶν ὁ 
Κλείταρχος ὡς αἰτίας γενομένης x. τ. Δ. “ Clitarchus speaks of 
Thais as having been the cause,” &c. 2. It is joined in ἃ simi- 
lar manner with accusatives also, νομίζων or the like being un- 
derstood, as εὔχετο δὲ πρὸς τοὺς ϑεοὺς ἁπλῶς τἀγαθὰ διδόναι, ὡς 
τοὺς ϑεοὺς κάλλιστα εἰδότας. He used ἰο pray to the gods simply 
to give him what was good, since he thought the gods knew best. 
3. ‘Qs, ὥς ye, ὡς δὴ, ὡς οὖν, ὡς γοῦν, sometimes signify for, i.e. 
considered as, or, considered with reference or regard to, as ἦν 
δὲ οὐδὲ ἀδύνατος, ὡς Μακεδαιμόνιος, εἰπεῖν. Nor was he ineloquent 
for (i. 6. considered as) a Lacedemonian. 'Thucyd. ἀνὴρ, ὥς 
δὴ τότε, a man, for those times, (i. e. considered with reference 


291] 


to the age he lived in), κομιψός που καὶ ἀστεῖος. Soalso, rodeyor 
ἐξηκρίβωσεν ὥς 7s (or, ὡς δὴ,) κατ᾽ avOgwnov, He finished the 
work with great exactness for a man, (the limited capacity and 
faculties of human beings being considered). 4. “Ὡς also sig- 
nifies, when, whilst, as soon as, &c. In this sense it is 
elegantly repeated to express the celerity of an occurrence ; 
as, ὡς 610°, ὥς μιν μᾶλλον ἔδυ χόλος. As soon as he saw them, im- 
mediately, &c. 5. Itis often expressive of a wish; in verse, 
by itself; as ὦ Ζεῦ, ὡς XaliGay πᾶν ἀπόλοιτο γένος : Callim. 
Jupiter, ut Chalybén omne genus pereat. But in prose εἴθδ ys 
is often joined with it, or ys alone, some other word interven- 
ing; as, ὡς εἴθε ye καὶ ἐξεμέσαι δυνατὸν ἦν. Lucian. 6. It has 
sometimes the signification of ὅτι, that. 7. Like ὅτι it is also 
put before superlative adverbs and adjectives, &c. and strength- 
ens the meaning, as ὡς τάχιστα, as quickly as possible. 8. Some- 
times ὡς and ὅτι are conjoined before superlatives, when οὕτως 
may be understood, as ὡς ὅτι μάλιστα, in the same degree as 
what is most so. 9. “Ὡς is often jomed with an infinitive, in the 
sense of guemadmodum, or quantum, as, or as far as. Thus 
ὡς εἰκάσαι, as far as one may conjecture. ὡς ἔμοιγε δοκεῖν, as I 
think. ὡς εἰπεῖν, so to speak. ὡς ἐμὲ sd μεμνῆσθαι, as far as I well 
remember. 10. It is sometimes put before ἔκαστος, as ὡς ἔκασ- 
τοι, severally, quisque pro se. 11. With the accent it stands for 
οὕτως, so: care, however, must be taken not to confound ὥς for 
οὕτως, with ὡς changed to ὥς because followed by an enclitic. 
12. ‘Ms with numerals, signifies about, as ὡς ἑκατὸν, about a 
hundred. 13. “Ὡς is sometimes put for εἰς or πρὸς. In these 
constructions, ὡς is not properly a preposition, but a particle, 
whichis frequently joined with prepositions signifying direction 
towards a point, to indicate that the idea of the preposition 
must not be taken in a strict and definite sense, as ὡς πρός, ὡς 
éic, as towards, as to, i. 6. towards, to. By reason of this fre- 
quent combination with prepositions, ὡς became gradually used 
as a preposition itself, and, as such, denotes approach, yet al- 
ways with the collateral idea, that the approach is made at a 
distance, and with timidity or reverence. Hence it is chiefly, 
though not exclusively, used with persons ; as ὡς τοὺς Feovs— 
ὡς τόν βασιλέα. 


Negative Particles. 


The Greeks employ for negation the two particles οὐ (οὐκ, 
οὐχ) and μή, whose composition with other particles produces 
a double series of negatives, which, in certain combinations of 

21" 


238 


propositions, and under certain relations of sense, are used in- 
terchangeably, according to the same rule as the simple οὐ and 
μή themselves. 

The difference between μή and οὐ is, that οὐ denies a thing 
itself, μή a thought of a thing. Hence οὐ is used absolutely, 
and independently of any foregoing verb expressed or under- 
stood, as οὐκ ἔστι ταῦτα, this is not so: whereas with μή, there 
must be either expressed or understood some verb significant 
of thought, suspicion, will; as μὴ ταῦτα γένηται, viz. φοδοῦμαι, 
I fear lest this may happen: μὴ τοῦτο δράσης, viz. ὅρα. See that 
you do not do this. Sometimes, however, it is rather the thought 
or will itself that is understood than any particular verk expres- 
Sive of it; as μὴ κεῦθε. 

From this primary and constant difference between μή and 
οὐ is derived the distinction made by grammarians, that οὐ 
denies and μή forbids. Οὐ τολμήσεις is, you will not dare, 
to one, who, we know, has not audacity enough to do so and 
80: μὴ τολμήσεις is, dare not, to one who in our opinion is au- 
dacious enough to do what we know the former will not do. 

Hence it appears too why μὴ, not οὐ, is joined with conditional 
particles ; as, εἰ μὴ, ἐὰν μὴ, ὅταν μὴ, &c. not δὲ od, ἐὰν οὐ, Ke. 
for by their very nature these particles indicate that something 
is proposed as a supposition or thought of some one. And, in 
the same manner, the relative ὃς is used with μὴ, when we 
intend it to have an hypothetical signification ; as, τίς δὲ δοῦναι 
δύναται ἑτέρῳ, ἃ μὴ ἔχει αὐτός ; who can give things to another, 
if he has them not himself? Wad the expression been ἃ οὐκ 
ἔχειν adtds; the sense would have been, the things which a per- 
son has not himself, how can he give to another ? 

When μὴ is joined with participles, as is very frequently the 
case, the sense is properly, if there be such: thus, ὁ πιστεύων 
δὶς αὐτὸν οὐ κρίνεται, ὁ δὲ μὴ πιστεύων ἤδη κέκριται, ὅτι μὴ πεπίσ- 
τϑυκεν δὶς τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ μονογενοῦς υἱοῦ τοῦ ϑεοῦ. John.3.18. Here 
it is οὐ κρίνδται, because it is simply and fully denied that the be- 
liever is ever subject to condemnation; but it is μὴ πιστεύων as 
expressing negation in a supposed case, and ὁ μὴ πιστεύων is 
equivalent to should there be any one who does not believe, &c. 
while the phrase οὐ πιστεύων would imply some definite indi- 
vidual who actually does not believe. So it is ὅτε μὴ πεπίσ- 
revzer, i. 6. because, by supposition, he has not believed ; where- 
as ὅτυ οὐ πεπίστευκδ would have been intended of some one per- 
son in particular. 

The two negations are often combined together so as mu- 
tually to restrict or confine each other. This can take place 
in a two-fold manner, according to the order of position, thus 


299 


either οὐ μή or μὴ οὐ. In this combination, as in all other 
cases, οὐ denies objectively, and μη subjectively. Hence οὐ 
μή implies the idea of no apprehension being entertained that a 
thing will take place ; μὴ οὐ, on the contrary, the idea of an 
apprehension being entertained that a thing will not take place. 
Hence are derived the following rules. 

1. Οὐ μή, is an extensive and emphatical negation, and in- 
dicates the imagining of a thing which should not and must not 
take place; as, οὐ μὴ δυσμενὴς gon φίλοις, that thou wilt not 
(I expect,) be tll-inclined towards thy friends, that is, be not ill- 
inclined towards thy friends: ἀλλ᾽ οὔποτ᾽ ἐξ ἐμοῦ ye μὴ μάθης 
τόδε, yet never (must thou expect) that thou wouldst learn this 
from me, that is, yet never shouldst thou learn this from me. 

2. Μὴ οὐ, in dependant propositions, when the verb of the 
principal proposition is either accompanied by a negation or 
contains a negative idea in itself, destroy each other, and are 
often to be translated by that; as, πρὸς τέ βλέπων ἀπιστεῖς μὴ 
οὐκ ἐπιστήμη ἦ ἡ ἀρετή; with reference to what dost thou dis- 
believe that virtue is knowledge ?—odx ἀρνοῦμαι μὴ οὐ γενέσθαι. 
1 do not deny that it has taken place.—nelaouae γὰρ οὐ τοσοῦτον 
οὐδὲν, ὥστε μὴ οὐ καλῶς ϑανεῖν, there will nothing happen to me so 
bad, but that I shall die nobly. 

3. In independent propasitions, on the contrary, “7 ov is 
used in combination with the subjunctive to express negative 
assertions with less positiveness and strength, and is to be 
translated by indeed not, perhaps not, and explained by the 
addition of an omitted verb, as ὅρα, and the like: thus, ἀλλὰ 
μὴ οὐκ ἦ διδακτὸν ἡ ἀρετή, but virtue may perhaps not be to be 
taught.—iuiv δὲ μὴ οὐδὲν ἄλλο σκεπτέον ἦ, ἢ ὅπερ νῦν On ἐλέγομεν, 
but perhaps nothing else may be to be examined, than what we 
just now mentioned. In the same manner is μὴ οὐ used also 
in combination with the participle to strengthen the sense of 
μὴ, and to render it more distinct and prominent; as, δυσάλγητος 
γὰρ ἂν εἴην, τοιάνδε μὴ οὐ κατοικτείρων ἕδραν, for I should be un- 
feeling, were it possible for me not to pity, ὅτο. 


Of the Tenses and Moods. 
TENSES. 


1. GENERAL REMARKS. 


1. In order to define accurately, and understand correctly, 
the peculiar signification of each tense, it is necessary that, 
besides the idea of tue, regard should also be had to the stage 


240 
or period of the action which is expressed in the verb. For, 
as the time admits of being resolved into three divisions, be- 
ing either past, present, or future; so the action also, consi- 
dered as such, appears in a threefold relation, and must be con- 
ceived either as completed and finished, or as developing and 
forming, or as at the moment of beginning and coming on. 

2. Now, both the point of time and the stage or period of 
the action are indicated in the verbal forms which we denomi- 
nate tenses, and hence the peculiar idea,of each individual 
tense cannot be properly understood, unless at the same time 
a correct conception be entertained of the relation which in- 
tervenes between the time and the action. 

3. But the action in each of its three relations can fall into 
each of the three divisions of time; and hence arise three 
times three, or nine tenses, which we shall here develope ac- 
cording to their idea, illustrated with examples from the Greek, 
and designated, as far as these will suffice, by the usual gram- 
matical appellations. 


1. The action falls into the present time, 


(A.) as completed or finished.—y¢yoaga, 1 have writ- 
ten.—Perfect tense. 

(B.) as developing or forming.—yedguw, I write, am 
writing.—Present tense. 

(C.) as at the moment of beginning, or coming on. 
--- μέλλω γράφειν, I am beginning to write, am 
just going to write, am on the point of writing. 
—Compound future, formed with the present 
of the auxiliary verb. 


2. The action falls into past time, 


(A.) as completed.—2ysyodqerr, I had written —Plu- 
perfect tense. 

(B.) as developing —2yeegor, 1 wrote, was writing. 
—Imperfect tense. 

(C.) as at the moment of beginning.—2ueddoy γρά- 
ger, I was on the point of writing. 


_ 3. The action falls into the future time, 


(A.) as completed.—yeyeaqas ἔσομαι, I shall have 
written.—F uture perfect tense. 

(B.) as developing —yoeéyo, 1 shall write, or be 
writing.—Simple future tense. 

(C.) as at the moment of beginning.—yedyar ἔσο- 

τς μαι, I shall be on the point of writing. 


241 


4. All the tenses here specified have a positive existence in 
a language, although they are not completely enumerated in 
the Grammar, which generally passes over such as do not pos- 
sess an independent form, but are produced by composition 
with auxiliary verbs. In Greek, there is also the Aorist, the 
signification of which we shall develope in the remarks on the 
individual tenses. 


2. Use of the Individual Tenses. 


1. The Present expresses an action which we are just now 
performing, as in other languages ; as γράφω, [ write, or am 
writing (am just now in the act of writing). The present 
tense is also used for assigning properties which are perma- 
nently connected with an object, or for the expression of a ge- 
neral sentiment, as πάντα τὰ ἀγαθὰ δίδωσιν ὁ Θεός. God gives 
all things that are ροοά.----πολλῶν κακῶν ἀνθρώποις αἴτιός ἐστιν ὁ 
πόλεμος. War is the cause of many evils ἐο men. Hence in this 
latter usage it deserves the name of the present aorist ; for it is 
an acknowledged principle of universal grammar, that wher- 
ever time is signified without any farther circumscription than 
that of simple present, past, or future, the tense is an aorist. 

2. The Perfect denotes an action as completed in past time, 
but continued in its consequences, or attendant circumstances, 
to the present; as γεγάμηκα, I am married, (i. e. 1 have been 
and still continue married ;) whereas éyéuyoa, the aorist, signi- 
fies I was, or have been, married, without indicating whether 
the relation still subsists. Hence the perfect is generally used 
to denote a lasting and permanent state, or an action finished 
in itself, and it therefore often occurs in Greek where in English 
we use the present: as ἀμφιθέδηκας, thou protectest, (i. e. thou 
hast protected and still dost continue to protect). ‘The conti- 
nued force of the perfect accompanies it through all the moods ; 
as, εἶπον, τὴν ϑύραν κεκλεῖσθαι, they gave directions for the door 
to remain shut. τὸ ἀγκύριον ἀνεσπάσθω, let the anchor be weighed 
and remain so. τεθναθι, lie dead. τεθναιην, may I be dead, &e. 

Several perfects are always used to denote only the finished 
action whose effect is permanent ; and therefore in English are 
translated by the present of some other verb, which expresses 
the consequence of the action contained in the Greek verb; 
thus, from καλέω, 7 name, we have κέκλημαι, my name is; I am 
called: from κτάομαι, 7 acquire for myself, κέκτημαι, ] possess, 
(i. 6.1 have acquired, and the acquisition continues mine) : 
μνάομαι, I recall to my own recollection, μέμνημαι, I remember, 
1 am mindful. 


242 


3. The aorist, on the contrary, only denotes generally an 
action or occurrence of the past, without determining the period 
of its termination, and without leaving the mind any room to 
dwell upon it: thus, ἐκτίσθη ἡ πόλις can be said of any town ; 
on the contrary, ἔκτισται ἡ πόλες only of a town which has just 
been built, or which now exists in its finished state. Hence 
the name of this tense, (ἀορέστος yodvos,) the time being undefin- 
ed, and no reference being to any fixed period. 

As the aorist merely denotes an action of the past, unde 
fined as to the period of its termination, and which does not 
leave the mind any room to dwell upon it, hence arises the 
usage of making the aorist often refer to a quick or momenta- 
neous action, examples of which occur on almost every page of 
the Greek writers; as τοὺς πελταστὰς ἐδέξαντο of βάρθαροι, the 
barbarians received (a momentaneous action) the targeteers, καὶ 
sig φυγὴν ἔτρεψαν, and put them quickly to flight. 

As the aorist does not definitively mark the point of time 
when an action was performed, but only denotes generally that 
something has taken place at some period or other of the past, 
the Greeks use it also to indicate that something has occurred 
repeatedly at different periods, or that something is wont to 
take place. Such an aorist is translated in English by the 
present, or by the auxiliary verbs, to be wont, to use, &c. as 
“Σωκράτης ἐδίδαξε τοὺς μαθητὰς ἀμισθὶ. Socrates was wont to 
teach his disciples without any charge. Τὰ ἄστρα ἐν τῇ νυκτὶ of 
ϑεοὶ ἀνέφηναν, The Gods cause the stars to appear above our 
heads in the night-season, (i. e. always do this). 

4. 'The Future tense expresses an action which is to be per- 
formed at a future period. Yet in Greek an accurate distinc- 
tion must be observed between the simple future and that form- 
ed with μέλλω and the infinitive, as the former only assigns ge- 
nerally something which is to take place at one period or other 
of the future, while the latter always designates an action which 
ts to be begun at this moment ; thus γράψα, I shail write, (the 
time when the writing is to begin being undefined); on the 
contrary, μέλλω γράφειν, seripturus sum, I am on the point of 
writing, (am just now going to write). 

5. The Imperfect expresses an action in past time, con- 
tinued during another past action or its accompanying circum- 
stances. Hence it is generally used to express a continuous 
action, and in narrative interchanges with the aorist which de- 
notes something momentaneous. 

The imperfect not only expresses continuance of action, 
but also, in consequence of this, what is customary. It differs 
from the aorist, however, in this latter signification, in that the 


243 


aorist denotes what is always customary ; the imperfect what 
was customary during a specified period of time. 

In many verbs, from the poverty of external forms, the es- 
tablished distinction between the aorist and imperfect has dis- 
appeared. Thus, forms of the imperfect, as ἦν, ἔφη, ἔκλυε, 
ἕζετο, &c. are also used in the signification of aorists, which 
are partly not extant, partly less usual in these verbs. In the 
same manner also, aorists, as ἔστη, ἦλθε, ἔδυ, &c. frequently 
stand in the signification of the imperfect. — 

6. The Pluperfect denotes an action, which was already 
completed when another began, or while another continued. It 
is therefore to the Past, what the Perfect is to the Present; 
and as the Perfect is frequently rendered into English by the 
Present, so the Pluperfect is often rendered by the English 
Imperfect; as, ἐδεδοίκειν, I was afraid, (i. 6. 1 had been and still 
continued afraid). — 

7. The Paulo Post Futurum, or Third Future Passive as it 
is sometimes styled, is properly, both in form and signification, 
compounded of the Perfect and Future; and, as the Perfect often 
signifies a continued action, this meaning remains in the Third 
Future, as ἐγγεγράψεται, he shall continue, or stand, enrolled. 
Consequently, this is the natural future of those perfects which 
have acquired a separate meaning of the nature of the present ; 
as, λέλειπται, he has been left, he remains; λελείψεται, he shall 
have been left, shall remain ; but λειφθήσεται, he will be left, or 
deserted. So κέκτημαι, I possess; κεκτῆσομαι, I shall possess ; 
but κτήσομαι, 7 will acquire. 

In some Verbs the Third Future has a peculiar import: ei- 
ther, Ist. Jt shall, I will, as τεθάψεται, he shall be buried ; or, 
2d. a hastening of the action, as φράζε καὶ πεπράξεται, speak 
and it shall be accomplished immediately. In this usage, the 
Third Future is used to express the rapidity of an action, by 
taking, not the beginning of it, but its completion, and the situa- 
tion resulting from it. It is on this latter acceptation that its 
name of Paulo Post Futurum (what will take place a little while 
after the present, i. e. futurum paulo post presens tempus) rests. 

The Attics employ the Third Future Passive of several 
Verbs, as a simple Future Passive ; as in δέω, to bind; παύω, 
to cause to cease; κόπτω, to cut, &c. 

8. Although the Greek language is richer than any other in 
independent forms, nevertheless a circumlocution is also fre- 
quently made use of by means of the auxiliary verbs δἶναι 
κυρεῖν, ὑπάρχειν and ἔχειν in connection with a particle, partly 
to supply deficient or to avoid inharmonious forms, partly to 
strengthen the signification. Thus, the subjunctive and opta- 


244 


tive of the perfect, both in the passive and active, are formed 
with εἶναι and the perfect participle, the independent forms 
being only very rarely used. But such circumlocutions fre- 
quently occur, particularly with the poets, even in the place 
of forms which are altogether usual, for the sake generally of 
strengthening the signification; as, ἔχων ἐστι, more emphati- 
cal than ἔχεν alone, &c. Of the circumlocutions formed with 
ἔχειν, those chiefly are to be remarked which express the idea 
of the continuous action ; as, τοιαῦτά φασι τὸν ἀγαθὸν Κρέοντα 
κηρύξαντα ἔχειν (for κήρυξαι) such a command they say the good 
Creon has issued, (and it still continues). This kind of cir- 
cumlocution, particularly with εἶναι, is very common in many 
writers, as, for example, Herodotus, who often employs it in- 
stead of the simple verbal form. 


Of the Moods. 


1. In simple propositions, the use of the Indicative is the 
same in all languages, as every thing which really exists, and 
every general sentiment pronounced unconditionally, must be 
Yesignated by this mood. 

2. The Subjunctive denotes the conditional and dependent, 
i. e. any thing which, in order to become real, requires the in- 
tervention of something else. From this general principle 
regulating its use are deduced the following shades of mean- 
ing, expressed by the same mood. 

(A.) It is used in encouraging and exhorting in the first 
person plural, and in warning and prohibiting in the 
second person; because the performance of the action 
still depends upon the will of the person to whom the 
address is made; as,” IJwuer, let us ρο.--- μηδενὶ συμφορὰν 
ὀνειδίσης, reproach no one with misfortune. 

(B.) It is used to express something undecided with respect 
to its issue, and consequently dependent, 1. in ques- 
tions implying doubt ; as, ἐγὼ τί ποιῶ : what am I to do? 
- εἴπωμεν ἢ σιγῶμεν ; are we to speak, or remain silent ? 
—2. In negative propositions chiefly with οὐ μή, when 
something is not likely to be positively denied, but is 
only stated as unlikely to occur. In this case we com- 
monly translate the subjunctive by the future ; as, οὐ 
μὴ εἴπω, 1 will not δαγ.----ὰν τοὺς φίλους κρατῆς εὖ ποιῶν, 
οὐ μή σοι δύνωνται ἀνέχειν οἱ πολέμιοι, tf you surpass your 
friends in conferring favours on them, your enemies will 
not be able to withstand you. 


245 

3. The Optative denotes a thing purely imaginative, ἃ mere 

human conception, abstracted from all reality and condition. 

Hence its use in simple propositions is very common and di- 

versified, although it admits of being reduced to the following 

cases. 

(A.) Every occurrence which in and of itself is conceived 
as possible (whether the imagination employs it as an 
expectation, a hope, an apprehension, or as a merely 
assumed case), is expressed by the optative, usually in 
combination with the particle ἄν. In English we trans- 
late such an optative by the addition of the auxiliaries 
may, can, might, could, would, should, &c. as ἴσως ἄν 
τινες ἐπιτιμήσειαν τοῖς εἰρημένοις. Some perhaps might 

. find fault with the things that have been said.—otx ἄν 

ἀνασχοίμην, I should not endure. 
In the same light must the optative be considered, when 
it is used to express requests, commands, and even po- 
sitive assertions, where with us it is, for the most part, 
translated by the imperative or the future. For in this 
usage there is couched merely a milder and more re- 
fined form of expression, chiefly adopted by the Attics, 
wherein we advance that which might be pronounced 
unconditionally and positively, merely as our own opi- 
nion and idea, and consequently do not anticipate the 
judgment of others. ‘This peculiar usage is based up- 
on the political equality of the Greeks, and more par- 
ticularly that of the Athenians. Thus οὐκ ἂν ἀποφεύ- 
yous τὴν νόσον, you will not escape the disease, (literally, 
possibly you might not escape)—héyous ἂν ἃ δεῖ λέγειν, 
speak what you ought to speak, (literally, perhaps you 
might speak). 

(C.) The optative is also used for the expression of a wish, 
(for a wish is the idea that something can be, united 
with the desire that it may be), sometimes accompanied 
by the particles εἰ, εἴθε, ei γάρ, as, and sometimes with- 
out them: as, καλήν σοι ϑεοὶ διδοῖεν τύχην, may the 
gods give you prosperity—@ παῖ, γένοιο πατρὸς εὐτυ- 
χέστερος, O my son, may you be more fortunate than 
your father. ) j 


Ὁ." 


(B. 


ee. al 


, Library. 


SOF Caytorni§ 7 


“3. “Ἐπ 


246 


Use of the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Optative 
in Dependent Propositions. 


PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 
Use of the Particle ay. 


1: The particle ἄν, is synonymous with the Epic κα or xev, 
and imparts to the verbal expression, which it accompanies, 
the accessory idea of conditionality, i. e. it denotes that the 
thing of which we discourse is conceived as dependent upon 
certain circumstances. The use of this particle is therefore 
extremely various, as it is applied in all cases where a thing 
or an idea is not to be expressed absolutely and of itself, but 
as dependent on contingencies, consequently as uncertain, 
doubtful, difficult, probable, or generally as possible. Hence 
ἄν is frequently associated with other particles, to limit or mo- 
dify their sense. On the use of ἄν in independent proposi- 
tions, the following must be observed : 

(A.) In connection with the optative, with which in the 
common language it is most frequently employed, ἄν 
denotes that the mere idea expressed by the optative is 
also conceived in a relation to reality, i. 6. as realizing 
itself under certain circumstances ; thus, οὐκ ἀνασχοίμην, 
I cannot possibly endure (the enduring appears to me 
impossible in and of itself, without any regard being 
paid to existing circumstances, or the operation of con- 
tingencies); on the contrary, οὐκ ἂν ἀνασχοίμην, I 
should not endure, (the circumstances would not be of 
that kind that I should endure). 

(B.) In connection with the subjunctive, ἄν. is used in sim- 
ple propositions only by Homer and the poets, to de- 
note that an event will be realised merely through ex- 
isting circumstances ; thus, ἧς ὑπεροπλίησι τάχ᾽ ἄν mors 
ϑυμόν ὀλέσση. (Hom. Ll. &, 205.) through his pride it 
will happen that he will soon lose his life, (ὀλέσσει would 

_express the loss of life as a positive assertion without 
‘regard to existing circumstances ; but ὀλέσση ἄν im- 
plies that the loss of life is conceived in a purely ob- 
jective sense, and as the consequence of pride.)—In 
like manner, (11. &, 182.) τὴν μὲν ἐγὼ σὺν vie τ' ἐμῆ. 
καὶ ἐμοῖς ἐτάροισιν πέμψω, ἐγὼ δὲ x’ ἄγω. Here the fu- 
ture πέμψω designates the positive subjective assertion, 
but ἄγω xe a case brought about by circumstances. ‘I'he 


(0) 


(D.) 


(E.) 


247 


English translation of such a subjunctive by the future, 
by no means actually corresponds to the true sense, 
but a nearer approximation to it is furnished by the 
construction 2 will happen that. | 

In the connection of ἄν with the indicative, a distinc- 
tion must be made between the different cases: 1. ἄν 
is only very seldom joined to the indicative of the pre- 
sent and future, to soften the positive assertion and to 


invest it with an air of uncertainty ; as, οὐκ οἷδ ἄν, ἢ 


dont exactly know, I dont rightly know.—otuas ἄν, I 
should suppose—xuvduveder ἂν εἶναι, It would seem to be. 
—In this manner Homer frequently uses ἄν in connec- 
tion with the future, as (Jl. χ', 42.) τάχα κέν & κύνες καὶ 
γῦπες ἔδονται. Soon perhaps will the dogs and vultures 
devour him.—(Il. 5’, 76.) καὶ κέ τις ᾧδ᾽ ἐρέδι, and thus 
perhaps some one will say.—Also ἄν sometimes appears 
with the indicative of other tenses in the same signifi- 
cation ; as, (Xen. Cyrop. 7. 1. 38.) ἔνθα δὴ ἔγνω ἂν τις 
ὅσου ἄξιον εἴη τὸ φιλεῖσθαι ἄρχοντα ὑπὸ τῶν ἀρχομένων. 
Then one might see, &c. 2. With the indicative of 
preterites, particularly of the imperfect and the aorists, 
ἄν denotes that an action has not taken place merely 
once and at the same definite period, but as often as 
circumstances occurred to occasion it; hence in Eng- 
lish translation we either express it by adverbs, as 
generally, usually, or by verbs to be wont, to use, or, 
according to an idiom, not unlike the Greek, by would ; 
as, ὅκως Gor ἐς ἄλλην οἰκίαν, ἀπελαύνετ᾽ ἄν. As often as 
he came to any other dwelling, he used to be driven 
away.—siv οὐκ εἶχον ἄν, then again I should have no- 
thing, used to have nothing. 

Sometimes ἂν is joined even to the imperative, to sof- 
ten the positiveness of the expression contained there- 
in; as, ἔδρασ᾽ ἄν͵ εὖ τοῦτ᾽ tof &v,I should have done tt, 
that you may well suppose. 

When ἄν is joined to the ie or participle, the 
event expressed in the verbal form is represented by 
it as conditional and merely probable ; as, ἐνόμιζον gadl- 
ὡς ἂν σφίσι τ' ἄλλα προσχωρήσειν, they thought that the 
rest would. readily surrender to ἐλεηι.----εὑρίσκω ταύτην 
ἂν μόνην γενομένην τῶν μελλόντων κινδύνων ἀποτροπήν, I 


jind that this would be the only way of averting the dan- 


gers which threaten. 


248 


Interchanged use of the Indicative, Subjunctive, 


and Optative. 


IN 


SUPPLEMENTAL PROPOSITIONS. 


1. The particles made use of for assigning the time and 
cause, are the following: (a) for both the time and cause ; ἐπεί, 
ἐπειδή, ὡς, bte.—(b) for the time alone ; ἡνίκα, ὁπότε, Ews—(c) | 
for the cause alone ; ὅτι, διότι. 

2. The following are general rules for the construction ot 
these propositions : 


(A-) 


(B.) 


The Indicative always stands in direct discourse after 
temporal and causal particles, when the time and cause 
are assigned unconditionally and as facts; as οὐ δοκεῖ σοι 
τόδε προνοίας ἔργῳ ἐοικέναι, τὸ, ἐπεὶ ἀσθενής ἐστιν ἡ ὄψις, 
βλεφάροις αὐτὴν ϑυρῶσαι; does not this appear to you to 
resemble a work of Providence, since the sight is weak, (a 
fact), the guarding it with eye-lids like the doors of ahouse? 
The Subjunctive is used in a supplemental proposition, 
when this proposition appears as conditional, and the 
temporal and causal particles then receive ἄν; as, Κῦρος 
ὑπέσχετο, ἀνδρὶ ἑκάστῳ δώσειν πέντ ἀργυρίου μνᾶς, ἐπὰν 
sig Babvlava ἥκωσι, Cyrus promised that he will give 
each soldier five mine of silver, whenever they arrive at 


Babylon. 


(C.) The Optative stands ina supplemental proposition, when 


mere ideas and conceptions are assigned, consequently 
La a most part after temporal particles, to express 
not ‘an individual circumstance, but cases of frequent 
recurrence ; as, ταῦτα λέγων ὁ Σωκράτης οὗ μόνον τοὺς 
συνόντας ἐδόκει ποιεῖν, ὁπότε ὑπὸ τῶν ἀνθρώπων ὁρῷντο, 
ἀπέχεσθαι τῶν ἀνοσίων καὶ ἀδίκων ἔργων, ἀλλὰ καὶ ὁπότε ἐν 
ἐρημίᾳ εἶεν, ἐπείπερ ἡγήσαιντο, μηδὲν ἄν ποτε, ὧν πράττοιδν, 
ϑεοὺς διαλαθεῖν. By dint of such remarks as these, So- 
crates appeared to make those, who associated with him, ah- 
stain from unholy and unjust actions, not only when they 
might be seen, (i. e. as often as they were seen), by men. 
but also when they might be, (i. e. as often as they were) 
in private, since they would entertain the conviction, (i. €. 
would always remain underthe impression) that nothing 
of the things which they might do, (i. e. from time to 
time do) would ever for a moment, (force of the aorist) 
escape the observation of the gods. 


249 


Of the use of the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Opta- 


twe in Transitive Propositions. 


When a transitive verb has for its object a clause or part of 
a sentence, this clause is denominated a transitive proposition. 
Thus, ἔλεγον ὅτε Κῦρος ἐτέθνηκει. They reported that Cyrus was 
dead. Mere the clause ὅτο Κῦρος ἐτέθνηκϑι is the object (or ac- 
cusative) of the verb ἔλεγον. This clause, therefore, is called a 
transitive proposition, because it is reached by the action of 
the principal verb. 

A near relation of a similar nature obtains when we take 
into consideration the aim or intention of an action. For here 
the action of the verb is evidently conceived as directed in its 
effect upon the intention. Thus, déyw, ἵνα εἰδῆς. I speak, 
that you may know. Here the intention of the action is ex- 
pressed by ἵνα εἰδῆς, and the action itself, as expressed by the 
verb λέγω, is evidently directed in its effect upon the intention 
of that action as expressed by the following clause. 

Hence arise two kinds of transitive propositions, 1. Tran- 
sitive Propositions for assigning the Object: and 2. ‘Transi- 
tive Propositions for assigning the Intention. 


I. Transitive Propositions for assigning an Object, 


General Rule. These transitive propositions invariably take 
the indicative when any thing is expressed unconditionally or 
adduced as a fact; on the contrary, they have the optative, 
when we merely assign the opinions and ideas of others: thus, 
Πάντες ὁμολογοῦσιν ὡς at μάχαν κρίνονταν μᾶλλον ταῖς ψυχαῖς, ὴ 
ταῖς τῶν σωμάτων δώμαις. Here κρίνονται, the indicative, marks 
an actual and acknowledged fact.—Troocugéorys διάθαλλειν τὸν 
Κῦρον πρὸς τὸν ἀδελφὸν, ὡς ἐπιθουλεύοι αὐτῷ, (that he was plotting 
against him). Here the optative ἐπιθουλεύον is used because 
it was the opinion of ‘Tissaphernes (sincere or not is immate- 
rial) that Cyrus was plotting against his brother. 

In oblique discourse, ὅτε and ὡς are usually indeed followed 
by the optative ; but even here the indicative enters when ac- 
tual events and positive assertions are assigned. Thus, If I 
say, ἔλεγες, ὅτι Ζεὺς τὴν δικαιοσύνην ἔπεμψε, I indicate that I 
myself also believe that Jupiter did so: but if I say ἔλεγες ὅτε 
Ζεὺς τὴν δικαιοσύνην πέμψειδ, | merely state the supposition of 
him who said so, whether true or false. 

Moreover, the indicative often stands in τῆι discourse 

22% 


200 


on account of the person being introduced as speaking himself, 
or being conceived as speaking himself in the midst of the 
narrative ; as, Θηραμένης συμδουλεύων τοῖς ᾿.““θηναίοις ἔλεξεν, ὡς 
χρὴ "δ᾽ θαι «Μακεδαιμονίοις καὶ τὰ τείχη πειριαιρεῖν. Here 
χρὴ, the indicative, introduces Theramenes as speaking himself. 


II. Transitive Propositions for assigning the In- 
tention. 


General Rule. The particles made use of for assigning the 
intention are ἕνα, ὕπως, ὄφρα, ὡς, ἕως, and μή. These inten- 
tional particles are joined with the subjunctive when the verb 
of the principal proposition (the leading verb in the sentence) 
is a present or future ; on the contrary, with the optative, when 
it is a past tense. 

Illustration. 'The following remarks will serve to establish 
the truth of this rule. The zntention is an idea, existing in the 
mind of the agent, of a result to be effected by the action. 
The accomplishment of the intention is made strictly condi- 
tional by the action, that is, the intention can only be accom- 
plished by the action. Hence the intention really exists only 
so long as the action either is performed or is to be perform- 
ed, and must therefore in this case, after a present and future, 
be expressed in the subjunctive. But if the action has been 
performed, the intention no longer exists, but the idea only re- 
mains that it was performed with a certain intention, and there- 
fore in this case, after a past tense, the optative must be used. 

Examples under thisrule. 4éyw ἵνα εἰδῆς, I speak, that you 
may know. —theSa ἵ ἵνα εἰδείης, I spoke that you might know.— 
περιμενῷ, ἕως ἀνοιχθῆ τὸ δεσμωτήριον, Iwill wait until the prison 
be opened. --περιεμένομεν ὃ ἕως ἀνοιχθείη τὸ δεσμωτήριον, we waited 
until the prison should be opened. 


Use of ἐδὲ Indicative, Subjunctive and Optative, in 
Relative Propositions. 


. The words made use of for designating relation are the 
elaine pronouns ὅς, ὅστις, οἷος, 0 ὅσος, é&c. and relative particles, 
as οὗ, ὅπου, ἔνθα, ἔνθεν, ὅθεν, ὅποι, ὅπως, ὡς, ἵνα, ἄτα. 

General Rule. The Indicative enters the relative proposi- 
tion in all cases wherein any thing is expressed uncondition- 
ally and as a fact, even in narrative also, where the optative 
might be expected ; the Optative is used to designate a mere 


251 


idea, chiefly therefore in assigning not a single and definite, 
but a frequently repeated, action; the Subjunctive stands after 
relatives in mentioning present and future things, to express 
an assumed case or existing intention; and, in this last case,. 
the particle ἄν, in Attic prose always, and generally with Epic 
writers and the Attic poets, accompanies the relative. 

Hence we deduce the following observations. 1. The Indi- 
cative stands in the relative proposition, when the verb of the 
principal proposition is a preterite, present, or future, and an 
event is expressed as definite and unconditional. 2. The Op- 
tative stands in the relative proposition after a preterite, pre- 
sent, or future, to express mere thoughts and ideas: 3: The 
Subjunctive can only stand after the present, or future, and that 
under the above-mentioned conditions ; 


Imperative. 


1. The Imperative denotes that the action expressed in the 
verb is required to take place or not to take place ; consequent- 
ly that, in the conception of the person requiring, it appears 
as necessary. | 

2. Hence in Greek, as in other languages, the imperative 
is used in accosting, requesting, commanding, exhorting, &c. 
Finally, it stands in the present when the action is conceived 
as continuous or permanent ; and in the aorist, when as tran- 
sient or momentaneous. Hence the imperative of the present 
occurs most frequently when an action already begun is to be 
continued; the imperative of the aorist, when one not yet 
begun is to be undertaken; as Θάῤῥει, ὦ φίλε ! keep up your 
spirits my friend !—'Axovooy τοίνυν, ὦ Κροῖσε, hear then, O 
Cresus. . 

3. If the requisition is to be expressed negatively, as a pro- 
hibition, or dissuasion, the negative μή must always be used. 
In this ease also the imperative stands in the present, when 
the action is conceived as permanent, consequently always 
when, being begun, it is to be discontinued. On the contrary, 
instead of the imperative of the aorist, which should enter 
when the action is conceived as momentaneous, therefore 
principally, when an action not yet begun is to be omitted, the 
Attics, at least, commonly use the subjunctive of the aorist : 
thus, μή wou ἀντίλεγδ refers to the contradiction having already 
begun: ‘ Dont be contradicting me:” whereas μή μοι ἀντιλέξης 
is used when the contradiction is to ke prevented. 80 μὴ κλέπτε 
and μὴ κλέψης, the former a general dissuasion from theft, the 
latter in reference to a particular and individual case. 


202 

4. The Greeks form also an imperative of the perfect. Such 
an imperative denotes either a permanent state; or it refers 
merely to the recollection of some past occurrence, and is 
‘used in assuming that a past action has been performed at a 
different time or in a different manner from what is really the 
fact; or it indicates generally a perfectly finished action. 

5. The imperative following οἶσθ᾽ ὅτε, οἶσθ᾽ 6, οἷσθ᾽ ὡς, is to 
be explained elliptically in the same way as the English con- 
structions of this kind, wherein the imperative, which follows 
in the Greek, pretedes ; as, οἷσθ᾽ ὃ dgacov ; do, you know what ? 
---οἶσθ᾽ ὡς nolyoov,; make it, you know how? 


The Infinitive Mood has already been consider- 
ed under the Syntax, to which the Student is 
therefore referred. 


PROSODY. 


Prosopy, in its common acceptation, treats of the quantity 
of syllables in the construction of verses. In the ancient 
Grammarians, προσωδία applies also to accent. 

The vowels δ, 0, are naturally short; 7 and ὦ naturally long ; 
but α, +, v, are called doubtful, being long in some syllables, 
and short in others. The quantity of syllables is determined 
by various methods :— 


1. POSITION. 


A short vowel, or a doubtful vowel, before two consonants 
or a double letter, is almost always long ; as δεινὴ δὲ κλαγγὴ, 
αὐτὰρ gus Ζεύς xara φρένα, πολλᾶς δ᾽ τφθίμους. Hom. 

This rule holds good in epic poetry, except in some proper 
names, and in words which could not be used in any other 
situation in the verse. ‘The following exceptions to the rule 
must be attended to in scanning the Dramatic writers. 

1. A short vowel before a soft mute, (7, ~, 7,) or an aspi- 
rate mute, (φ, 7, 9,) followed by a liquid, (4, μ, ¥, 9.) and also 
before the middle mutes (β, y, δ.) followed by the liquid ᾧ, is 
much rather left short than lengthened by the Attic poets. 

2. A short vowel before a middle mute, followed by 4, 4, ν, 
is almost always long. In Euripides such syllables are always 


253 
tonal but in Aischylus, Sophocles, and Aristophanes, they 


are ΠΕΣ short. 
A short vowel before two consonants, neither of which is a 
liquid, or before two liquids, is always long ; as, 
ὃς πδλλὰ δὴ καὶ τῶνδε γενναίῳ πατρὶ. Eurip. 


A short vowel is sometimes made long before a single liquid, 
which should be pronounced as if written double; as ἔλαθε 
pronounced ἔλλαδε ; ἐλώρια pronounced ἐλλώρια. 

A short vowel ending a foot, before ὁ in the beginning of 
the word following, is sometimes lengthened in the dramatic 
poets; as, Ψ 

τοῦτ᾽ ἔστιν ἤδη τοὖργον εἰς ἐμξ ῥέπον. 
σὺ δ᾽ οὐκ ἀνέξει: χρῆν» σ᾽ ἐπὶ ῥητοῖς ἄρα. ᾿ 
Eurip. Supp. 461. 

This license is of course employed only when the short 
syllable is the last of a foot: when it is the first of a foot it is 
left short (since even in the odd places of the verse an iambus 
is preferable to a spondee) ; but that the lengthening depends 
on the power of the inceptive ᾧ, and not merely on the force 
of the tctus metricus, is evident from the fact that a short syl- 
lable cannot be so lengthened, in the iambic trimeter, before 
any other single consonant. 

A short syllable is often made long, when the next word 
begins with a digammated vowel: as ὅς οὗ, for For, Hom. ; 
μέλανος οἴνοιο, for Fotvovo, Hom. ; οὐδὲ ods, for Fods, Hom. In 
many instances, however, there is no need of having recourse 
to the msertion of the digamma, but the lengthening of a 
short syllable may be explamed by the doctrine of the cesural 
pause, that is, the pressure of the voice on the syllable in 
question, or, as it is sometimes called, the ictus metricus. (vid. 
Observations on the Cesura.) 


2. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 


One vowel before another does not suffer elision, as in La- 
tin, at the end of a word, unless an apostrophe is substituted. 
(For farther remarks on elision, see in general, Appendix B.) 

One vowel before another or a diphthong is short, unless 
lengthened by poetic licence; as πολύάϊκος mohéuor0, Hom. 
Talgiovidao ἀνάκτος, Hom. 

A long vowel or a diphthong is mostly short when the next 
word home with a vowel; as ὡρῆ ἐν δἰαρινη ὅτε, Hom. ἡμετέρῳ 
ἐνὶ οἴκῳ, ἐν. Hom. 

Obs. A ἰδ g vowel or ἃ diphthong may be considered as con- 
sisting of two short vowels. If the latter is supposed to 


(254 


suffer elision, the former will of course remain short; as 
olxo ὃν. 


3. CONTRACTION. 


A contracted syllable is always long, as ὄφιδς, ὄφτς ; ἱερὸς, 
τρός. 

Two successive vowels, forming two syllables, even in dif- 
ferent words, frequently coalesce in poetry ; thus θεὸς becomes 
a monosyllable, χρυσέῳ ἃ dissyllable, and in ἢ λάθετ᾽, ἢ οὐκ 
ἐνόησεν, Hom. ἢ οὐκ are pronounced as one syllable (yous.) 


4. COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION. 


Words compounded and derived follow the quantity of their 
primitives, as ἄττμος from τιμὴ, piy7 from ἔφῦγον. 

A, privative, is short, as ἅτεμος ; but long in ἄθανατος. 

viene ev, Bor, dus, ta, are short, as ζἄθδος. 


Penultima of Nouns and Adjectives increasing in the 
Genitive. 


GENERAL RULE. 


The doubtful vowels in the penult. of Nouns and Adjec- 
tives increasing in the Genitive, are for the most part short. 
A is short, as σώμᾶτος. Exceptin 
The Doric Genitive, as ᾿“Ζτρειδᾶο, μουσᾶων for μουσᾶτων. 

Kéous, κέρατος ; (vid. page 42.) κρὰς, xeatds; wae, waods ; 
ϑώραξ, ϑώρδᾶκος ; ἱέραξ, ἱέρακος; κόρδαξ, κόρδακος : véat, véa- 
wos; Ont, ῥᾶγός ; σύρφαξ, σύρφᾶκος Φαίαξ, Φαίακος ; and, in 
general, all Nouns ending in αξ pure, are long. 

Genitives in ἄνος, as τιτὰν, τιτᾶνος, except τάλᾶἄνος and μέ- 
λᾶνος. 

The Dative Plural of Nouns which have the penult. of the 
Genitive Singular long; as γιγᾶσι, πᾶσι, τυψᾶσι. But α is 
short when the Dative is formed by syncope ; as ἀνδρᾶσι, πα- 
τρᾶσι, μητρᾶσι. (vid. page 43.) 

TI is short, as ἔρις, ἔρῖδος, Except in 
- Words of two terminations, as δελφὶν, δελφὶς, δελφῖνος. 

Monosyllables as dls, ϑινός ; but dis, ids, τὶς, τ᾽ νὸς, are 
short. 

Nouns in ἐς, ἐθος ; tw, πος ; t&,vyog; 1k, ὑκος ; as ὄρνις, ὄρντ- 
Gos; τέττιξ, τέττιγος ; μάστιξ, μάβτος: poirit , polvtxos (yet 
always Ogyixss in Homer.) 

But in w, 60g; 18, ἐχος, ε 15 generally short, χέρνιψ, χέρνϊ- 
ὅος ; ϑρὶξ, τρῖχος; ΟἿΣ, στῖχος. 


200 


Y is short, as πῦρ πῦρός. Except in 


Words of two terminations, as φόρκυν and φόρκυς, with πκή- 
evs, κύρυῦκος. 
ΤΓρὺψ, γρυπός ; γὺψ, γυπός, are common. 
Penultima of the Tenses of Verbs. 


The quantity of all Tenses generally remains the same as 
in the Tense from which they are formed; as from xgrvw are 
formed ἔκρτγον, xorvouas, ἐκρτγόμην ; from xgiv@ are formed 
κέκρικα, κέκρίμαι, ἐκρίθην. 

The Perfect follows the quantity of the First Future, as 
gua, φῦσω, πέφυκα. 

Verbs in 717w,—except those in ὑπτω, and πίπτω and ῥέπτω, 
—shorten the penultima of the Perfect. 

In the Attic reduplication the penultima is short, a as ὀρύττω, 
ὥρυχα, ὀρώρῦχα. 

The Perfect Middle follows the quantity of the Second 
Aorist, as ἔτῦπον, τέτῦπα ; except βέδρτιθα, ἔῤῥτγα, κέκρᾶγα, κέ- 
xOTY 0, ᾿μέμυκα, πέπραγα; πέφρτκα, τέτριγα, &e 

The doubtful vowels before σὺ are long, as τετύφᾶσι, δεικ- 
voor. (vid. pages 34 and 141.) 

In the First Aorist Participle, «ow is long. 

In the Second Conjugation α is short, except in the Third 
Person Plural of the Indicative Mood, the Subjunctive Mood, 
and the Participles of the Active Voice ; ἵστἄμεν, ἵστᾶθι, tora- 
vat, ἵστἄσο, &e. 

In the Ionic dialect « is short in the penult. of the preter 
Tenses, as yeyaa, γεγᾶὼς ; in the Third Person Plural of the 
Passive Voice, as éd&tav, δεδμήδτο: in the Second Person of 
the First Aorist Middle, as ἐζευξᾶο. But the Ionic α, in Verbs 
in ew, is long when it is prerston: by a long syllable, as μι8-- 
VOLVAG, 

In polysyllabic words of the Fourth Conjugation v is short, 
except in the Singular Number of the Present Tense Active 
Voice, and in the Third Person Plural, as ζεύγυμι, ζεύγνῦσι, 
&c. In dissyllables it is always long, as ὅσθι, @ute, δῦναι, 
&e. 

In the First Future α, +, and v, followed by ow, are short; 
as ϑαυμάζω, ϑαυμᾶσω ; νομίζω, voutow; κλύζω, κλύσω. 

But «ow is long from Verbs in «w preceded by a vowel, or 
in gaw, as ϑεάω, Feaow; δράω, δρᾶᾷσω. Iow and vow are long 
from Verbs in ὦ pure, as tiw, tow; ἰσχύω, ἰσχύσω. 

Liquid verbs have the penult of the future short, of the 1st. 
aorist active long; as xgrvw, κρίνω, ἔκρτνα (and hence éxgrva- 
μην, δια. 


206 


The Second Aorist has the penult always short, as ἔτρᾶχον, 
ἔλειπον, ἔφῦγον, ἔκἄμον, &e. 


CUSTOM OR AUTHORITY. 


In the Superlative ἃ is always short, as αἰνότᾶτος. 

The penult. of Verbs in aw is short; αὐξάνω, however, is 
sometimes lengthened, and φθάνω always in Homer, but in 

the Attic writers it is short. ‘Ixé»w is always long. 

The penult. of the Present and Imperfect of Verbs in ew is 
short by nature, but it may be made long by poetic licence, or 
by the insertion of the digamma. 

Nouns in awy have the penult. long, whether their incre- 
ment be long or short, as Ποσειδᾶων, Mayawy. 

Neuters in avoy have the penult. short, as ὄργᾶνον, δρέπᾶνον. 

Proper names, and names of stones in-erys, have the penult. 
long, as Evpeatys, ’Ayarys, except Τ᾽ αλᾶἄᾶτης, Ζαλμᾶτης, Εὐρυ- 
Gans, and a few others. 

The penult. of patronymic Nouns in «dy¢ is short, as Πη- 
ληϊἄδης. 

Most proper names of females in αἷς have the penult. long, 
as Wac, Δδις ; but masculines in ais are short, as Καλᾶις, 
Θηθδᾶις. 

The penult. of Adverbs in ἀπὲὶς and ax: is short, as πολλἄκις, 
τοσσᾶκι, 

In numerals the α is long, as τριᾶκόσιος ; and also in Verbals 
in aos, ασιμος, ατος, ατηρ, atHS, ατικος, derived from Verbs in 
aw; as κρᾶσις, ἰᾶσιμος, θεᾶτὸς, iatho, θεατὴς, &c. but in Nouns 
derived from Verbs of other Conjugations the @ is short, as 
δυνᾷτος. 

‘Avie has @ in the Nominative common, but in the oblique 
Cases and its compounds it is long. 

Verbs in «w have the penult. sometimes long, and sometimes 
short. Also Verbs in (ow, as τίνω, φθίνω. These are long in 
Homer, but short in the tragedians. 

Nouns in /« have the penult. always short in the Attic wri- 
ters, except καλία κονία, and ἀνία, where it is commonly long. 

Obs. In Homer many words in / occur with the penult. 
long. This appears to be a crasis from the old form in Fey. 

Nouns in erg and ἐτὲς have the penult. long, as πολῖτης, ve- 
gortes; except πρίτης, κτῖτης. 

Patronymics, and most other Nouns in «7, have the penult. 
long, as Wnotrn, ἀξτνη; except εἰλαπῖνη, and feminine Adjec- 
tives formed from masculines in ἔρος, as uveorvyn, xsd orvy. 

Derivatives in cous, toc, are short, as κρίσις, ἀκρῖτος, &c.; 
80 in ἐκὸς and ἐμος, as πρακτκὸς, νόστίμος. But those in ἐμὰ vary 


207 


according to the quantity of the penult. of the words whence 
they are derived, as κρῖμα from xexgiuar ; χρῖμα from yor. 

Comparatives in ἐὼν have the penult. long in Attic, short 
elsewhere. 

The penult. of Verbs in vm, vew, vyw, is mostly long; as, 
ἰθόνω, κύρω, βρῦχω; but in the Tenses derived from the Future 
it is short; as, κύρεω, μαρτὔρεω. 

Polysyllables in dvy, as ληθοσύνη ; some Nouns in υτῆς; as 
βραδύτης ; diminutives in vos, as μικκῦλος; and numerous 
Adjectives in vvog and vgos, have the penult. short. — 

The penult. is short also in Verbals in dors, as Avous ; piace, 
χῦσις, &c. but it is long in those in υμὰ, υμὸς, υτὴρ, vime; as, 
λυμὰ, χυμὸς, ὁυτὴρ, μηνύτωρ, dc. and in the greatest part of 
those in υτὸς υτὴς, utic, as κωκυτὸς, ῥυτὸς, πρεσθυτὴς, πρεσθυστὶς. 


QUANTITY OF THE LAST SYLLABLE. 


A Vowel at the end of a word. 


A, I, Ὑ fal are short. Except 
A long. 

Nouns in δα, θα, ρα, ea, τα, and polysyllables in ava, as xe- 
gala; with δὐλάκα, λάθρα, and πέρα. But διά, ἴα, μία, πότνια, 
βασίλεια, (a queen) and also ἄγκυρα, ἄκανθα, γέφυρα, Κέρκυρα, 
ὄλυρα, σκολοπένδρα, σφύρα, τανάγρα : compounds of μετρῶ, as 
γεωμέτρα ; ga preceded by a diphthong, as πειρὰ, except, αὖρα, 
λαῦρα, πλευρὰ, σαῦρα ; are short. 

Duals of the First Declension, as μούσα. 

Adjectives in « pure and ge from masculines in ος, as δικαία, 
ἡμετέρα. 

Nouns in δέὰα from δύω, as δουλεία from δουλεύω. 

Oxytons of the First Declension, as χαρά. 

Accusatives in α from Nouns in evs, generally in the Attic 
dialect. 

Vocatives from proper names in ας, as Aivela, Πάλλα, 

The Doric α,85 & maya for ἡ πηγὴ, βορέα for Bogéov. But 
the AZolic « is short, as γυμφᾶ φίλη, Hom. Hence the Latin 
Nom. in α is short. 

I long. 


The names of letters, as $7; with xg. 
The Paragoge in Pronouns and Adverbs, as οὐτοσὶ, νυνί: 
except the Dative Plural, as σοῖσι. 
The Attic « for α, 8, or 0, as ταυτὶ for ταῦτα, ὁδὲ for ὅδε, tovti 
for τοῦτο. ᾿ 
Adverbs formed from nouns, and ending in t, have the ὁ either 
23 


258 


long or short, but more commonly short; such as ἀμοχθὶ, ἀμα- 
χητὶ, ἀστακτὶ, &c. But those which refer to nations have the 
t always short; as Σ᾽ κυθιστῖ, ’Agyohotr, &ec. 


Y¥ long. 
The Imperfect and Second Aorist of Verbs in duc, as ἔφυ. 
The names of letters, as μῦ ; and fictitious words, as 9, γρῦ. 


AN, IN, YN final are short. Except 


Av long: Words circumflexed, as πᾶν. 

Oxytons masculi 16, as Τιτάν. 

These Adverbs, ἄγαν, evar, λίαν, πέραν. 

The Accusative of the First Daclinsiin, whose Nominative 
is long, as Aivelay, φιλίαν. 

Iv long: Words of two terminations, as δελφὲν and δελφὶς, 

“Ἡμῖν, and ὑμᾶν, when circumflexed. But Sophocles makes 
jury, jury; and the Epic Dialect has also ἀμμῖν, suury ; τὶν, 
Dor. for ot; and also κόνιν, Πρὶν is sometimes long in Ho- 
mer. 

Nouns in ἐν, evoc, as ῥηγμῖν. 

Yy long : Words of two terminations, as φύόρκυν and δον; 

Accusatives from vs long, as ὀφρὺν ; with νῦν. But when 
γυν is an Enclitic, as toi γυν, it is short. 

The Imperfect and Second Aorist of Verbs in uu, as ἐδείκ- 
vuv, ἔφυν. 

AP, YP final are short. Except 


Ag long: Τιὰρ and αὐτὰρ are sometimes long in Homer. 
Ye long: Πῦρ. 
AX, IX, Y= final are short. Except 

As long: Nominatives of Participles, as τύψας. 

All Cases of the First Declension, as ταμέας, φιλίας, μούσας 
But the Doric Acc. is short, as viugés. 

Plural Accusatives in ας from the long « in the Accusative 
Singular of Nouns in éus. 

Nouns in ag, avtoc, as Alas; with τάλας. 

Ig long: words of two terminations, as δελφὶς and δελφὶν. 

Nouns in ἐς increasing long, as πκνημὶς, bores; xls, κιός 
ἤορνις, however, has the last syllable often short in Tragedy 
though always long in Comedy. Porson. ad Hec. 204. 

Ys long: Words of two terminations, as φόρκυν and pogxus. 

Monosyllables, as “is; with κώμυς. 

Oxytons making the Genitive in o¢ pure, as πῆχυς ; though 
they are sometimes short, as πληθὺς ἐπερχομένων, Apoll. Rhod 
I. 239: ἰχθὺς is common. 

In Verbs in vue, as ἐδείκνυς, &c. 


209 


“OF FEET. 


A foot is composed of two or more syllables, strictly regu- 
lated by time. 

There are three kinds of feet: some are dissyllables, some 
trisyllables, and others consist of four syllables. 


The feet of two syllables are four. 


1. A Pyrrichius consists of two short syllables ; as ϑέξῦς. 

2. A Spondeus consists of two long syllables ; as ψυχῆ. 

3. An Jambus consists of a short and long syllable; as yé- 
has. 

4. A Trocheus consists of a long and a short syllable ; as 
σωμᾶ. . 
Feet of three syllables are eight. 

1. A Dactylus consists of a long and two short syllables ; 
as “λτῦς. 

2. An Anapestus consists of two short and a long syllable ; 
as μἔγδαλῆ. 

3. A Tribrachys consists of three short syllables; as ἔϑεξτδ, 

4. A Molossus consists of three long syllables ; as ᾿ἥρῶδης. 

5. An Amphibrachys consists of a short, a long, and a short 
syllable ; as μηρος. 

6. An Amphimacer or Cretic consists of a long, a short,and 
a long syllable ; as “ἡγἔμῶν. 

7. A Bacchius consists of a short and two long syllables ; 
as νυημῶν. ᾿ 

8. An Antibacchius consists of two long and a short sylla- 
ble; as ᾿φᾶιστῦς. 

Feet of four syllables are sixteen. 


1. A Choriambus consists of a long, two short, and a long 
syllable ; or it is formed of a Trochee (sometimes called Cho- 
ree) and an [ambus ; as “ἡμξτξἔρῷ. 

2. An Antispast consists of a short, two long, and a short 
syllable ; or of an Iambus and Trochee ; as χὔλωϑεντἄ. 

3. An Ionic @ majore consists of two long and two short 
syllables ; or of a Spondzus and Pyrrichius ; as *douqjroed. 

4, An Ionic ἃ minore consists of two short and two long 
syllables ; or of a Pyrrichius and a Spondeus ; as “Ζὐμηδῆς. 

1. A first Peon consists of a long and three short syllables ; 
or of a Trochee and Pyrrich ; as Στῆσϊχῦρῦς. 

2. Asecond Peon consists of a short, a long, and two short 
syllables ; or of an lambus and Pyrrich; as ἔπῶνῦμξ. 

3. A third Peon consists of two short, a long, and a short 
syllable ; or of a Pyrrich and a Trochee; as κλξσβδλῦς. 


260 


4. A fourth Peon consists of three short and a long sylla- 
ble ; or of a Pyrrich and an Iambus; as ϑξἔυγξνῆς. 

1. The first Epitrite consists of a short and three long sy!- 
lables ; or of an lambus and a Spondee ; as ἄρτστειδῆς. 

2. The second Epitrite consists of a long, a short, and two 
long syllables ; or of a Trochee and a Spondee ; as εὐρἔϑεν»- 
τῶν. 

3. The third Epitrite consists of two long, a short, and a 
long syllable ; οἵ οἵ a Spondee and an Iambus; as σῶτηρτϊᾶς. 
_ 4, The fourth Epitrite consists of three long and a short 
syllable ; or of a Spondee and a Trochee ; as φωγησᾶσᾶ. 

To these are added, 

1. A Proceleusmaticus, which consists of four short sylla- 
bles; or of two Pyrrichs; as giiicigis. 

2. A Dispondeus, which consists of four long syllables, or 
of two Spondees ; as ἡρᾶκλξιδῆς. 

' 3. A Dichoreus, which consists of two Trochees; as ἄρ- 
χῖδᾶμος. : 

4. A Diiambus, which consists of two Iambi; as ἄγδκρξῶν. 


| 


OF METRES. 


A metre, or Syzygy, properly consists of two feet. 

The principal metres are nine; they take their name from 
the appropriate or prevalent feet; viz. 1. lambic. 2. Tro- 
chaic. 3. Anapestic. 4. Dactylic. 5. Choriambic. 6. Antis- 
pastic. 7. Ionic a majore. 8. Ionic a minore. 9. Peonic. 

Besides these, there are Asynartetes, or Inconnectibles, al- 
most innumerable. 

1. Monometer is formed of one metre, or two feet. 

2. Dimeter is composed of two metres, or four feet. 

3. Trimeter, called also Senarius, consists of three metres, 
or six feet. 

4. 'Tetrameter consists of four metres, or eight feet. 

Some kinds of verse are measured by single feet ; as Pen- 
tameter, which consists of five feet ; and Hexameter, consist- 
ing of six feet. 

The following kinds of verse are measured by double feet ; 
viz. Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapestic. 

Verses from their ending are denominated Acatalectic, Ca- 
talectic, Brachycatalectic, and Hypercatalectic. 

_ A verse is called Acatalectic, which contains the exact num- 
ber of feet, without deficiency or redundancy. 

Catalectic verse is, where a syllable is wanting at the end. 

Brachycatalectic verse is, where two syllables are wanting 


261 


Hypercatalectic verse is, where there is a redundancy of 
one or two syllables at the end. 

The last syllable of a verse is common, except in Jambic, 
Trochaic, Anapestic, and greater Ionic. 


DACTYLIC MEASURE. 


1. Hexameters. 


Hexameter, or Heroic verse, consists of six feet, the fifth - 
of which is generally a Dactyl, and the sixth always a Spon- 
dee ; each of the others may be either a Dactyl or a Spondee 
at the Poet’s pleasure ; as 

“Ὡς εἰϊποῦσ᾽ lrguve μέϊνος καὶ | θύμον ἕϊκαστου, Hom. 

Sometimes in a solemn, majestic, or mournful description, 
the Spondee take place of the Dactyl in the fifth foot ; from 
which circumstance, such lines are called Spondaic ; as 

“RQ ᾿Αχιλεῦ, xélelal ws “1, φίλε | μυθήσασθαι, Hom. 
2. Pentameters. 

This verse consists of five feet. The first and second may 
be either a Dactyl or Spondee at pleasure; the third must 
always be a Spondee ; the fourth and fifth Anapests; as 

Οὔτε πο]δῶν ἀρετῆς οὔτ παλαισ)μοσύνης, 'Tyrteeus. 

This is the more correct mode of scanning Pentameters. 
Many, however, prefer the following method ; viz. the first two 
feet as before; then a semifoot or long syllable ; and lastly, 
two Dactyls, followed by another semifoot; as 

Οὔτε πο]δῶν ἀρετῆς || οὔτε πα᾿λαισμοσύνης. 


IAMBIC MEASURE. 


Of Iambics there are three kinds: Dimeters, consisting of 
two measures, or four feet; T'rimeters, of three measures, or 
six feet; and Tetrameters,.of four measures, or eight feet. 

The lambic verse at first admitted the Jambus only : as may 
be seen in the following verse of Archilochus, its inventor ; 

Πᾶτῆρ | Δὐκαμθ || ἅ, ποιὸν Ex || podos | Adyar. || 

But as this was not only ungrateful to the ear, on account 
of the frequent recurrence of the same foot, but also difficult 
with respect to composition, the Spondee was admitted into 
the odd places, i. e. the first, third, and fifth, and brought with 
them its resolutions, the Dactyl and Anapest, but under these 
limitations ; the Anapest is used only in the first foot, (except 
it be an Anapest of proper names, in which case every foot 
except the last receives an Anapest,) and the Dactyl only in 

23" 


262 


the first and third. The Tribrach, however, which is only an 
Iambus resolved, is found in every place except the last, which 
is alwaysa pure Iambic. Hence the following rules may be 
deduced :— | 

1. The odd feet admit of a greater latitude than the even, 
for the latter admit only the lambus and its resolution the 
Tribrach. 

2. The Tribrach is admissible into the five first feet; the 
Spondee into the first, third, and fifth. 

3. The Dactyl is admissible into the first and third places ; 
but observe that it is more common in the third than in the first 
place of the verse. 

4. The Anapzst is admissible into the first place only, ex- 
cept it be an Anapest of proper names. For the introduction 
of certain proper names, an Anapest may be admitted into 
any place except the last: but observe that the whole Ana- 
pest must be contained in the same word, and, generally, so 
that its two short syllables may be inclosed between two long 
in the same word. The Anapest admissible into the first 
place need not, however, be included in the same word, when 
the line begins either with an article, or with a preposition 
followed immediately by its case. (Monk. ad Soph. Elect. 4. 
Mus. Crit. vol. 1. p. 63.) 

Hence the following is the Jambic Trimeter scale. 


lst. Metre. Qd. Metre. 3d. Metre. 


i>. aria y6 Ὸ 2) σα ὦ 


1 2 3 4 5 6 


ed Vee wo -—— ee omend we 


ee Nd Neg —— sw 
we 
P.N. Net Na tes ΔΝ ον», Se ee wae 


The most frequent Cesural pause in this species of verse, 
is in the middle of the third foot ; as 

κέρκον πελειῶν || ob μάκραν λελειμμένοι. 

This is called the Penthemimeral Cesura, because it falls 
after the fifth half-foot. ‘The Hepthemimeral Cesura, which 
is in the middle of the fourth foot, is also of frequent occur- 
rence ; as 

ἥκω νεκρῶν κευθμῶνα || καὶ σκότου πύλας. 
There are, however, so many verses with no Cesura at 


263 


all, that it seems useless to enlarge here on this subject. 
Sometimes a line occurs which has neither of these ; but the 
Cesura takes place at the end of the third foot in case of an 
elision: or, with γ᾽, δ᾽, θ᾽, μ᾽, σ᾽, τ᾽, annexed to the end of the 
third foot. This is called by Porson the quasi-cesura ; as, 
"10? ὦ βροτῶν dguar, || ἀνόρθωσον πόλιν. 
Καιτοί viv οὐ κεῖνος γ᾽ | ὁ δυστηνός πότε. 

The first of these lines is an instance of the first species, 
and the second of the latter. 

Occasionally the quasi-cesura occurs without an elision at 
the end of the thirdfoot. This was supposed by some, though 
erroneously, to express great agitation of mind in the speaker, 
and to represent that agitation: though a line in the Gidipus 
Tyrannus of Sophocles seems calculated to support the truth 
of that supposition ; : 

72 Zed, τί μου δρᾶσαι || βεβούλευσαι περί. CE. R. 738. 

The last particular worth noticing is called the pause by 
Porson, and it is under the following circumstances. If a 
line end with a word or words forming a cretic (~~~), and a 
word of more than one syllable precede the cretic, the fifth 
foot of that line must be an iambus: as. 


Σωτῆρι βαίη, λαμπρὸς ὥσπερ ὄμματι. Ce. R. 81. 
Here ὥσπερ βλέμματι would have vitiated the metre. 


3. TROCHAIC MEASURE. 


The Catalectic Tetrameter is the only species of Trochaic 
used by the tragedians in regular continued systems ; such as, 

θασσῦν [ἢ μ᾽ ellzoqy προ]δατνῶν [ἐκδμ|ὴν δ᾽ ἀ στέ]ος. 

This metre at first composed the whole of the dialogue, 
but it gradually gave place to the lambic Trimeter: and ac- 
cordingly we find it but seldom used in the remaining Greek 
tragedians. 

A Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic verse consists of seven 
feet and a Catalectic syllable, which feet are properly all 'Tro- 
chees. In every place, however, the Trochee may be resolv- 
ed into a Tribrach. 

This verse admits also a Spondee in the even places, that 
is, the second, fourth, and sixth, which Spondee may be re- 
solved into an Anapest. 

In every place, except the fourth and seventh, a Dactyl of 
proper names is admitted, which should be contained in the 
same word, or so distributed that the two short syllables of 
the proper name be joined to the final long syllable of the pre- 


264 


ceding word. Hence the following is the scale of the T'rochaic 
Tetrameter Catalectic. 


1 2 3 ΕΙ 5 1719 


( 

( 

( 
ΠῚῚῚ 


NP.) — ως —LS LY || Tre we --- --..: SAE 


The Cesural pause in this species of verse uniformly takes 
place after the fourth foot, or at the end of the second metre. 
The Trochaic Tetrameter is easily reducible to the lambic 
measure, if a Cretic, or its equivalent, is removed from the be- 
ginning of it. : 
4. ANAPAASTIC MEASURE. 


This species of Measure admits Anapests, Dactyls, and 
Spondees, and is commonly Dimeters of four, and sometimes 
Monometers of two, feet. Of the former the strictest is the 
Dimeter Catalectic, called a Paroemiac, because proverbs, 
παροίμιαν, were sometimes written in that metre, which closes 
the system. 

' Anapestics may contain an indefinite series of Metres. Any 
number of these constitutes a system, which may be considered 
as extended without any distinction of verses, or, in other 
words, may be scanned as one verse. It has, generally, for 
the sake of convenience, been divided into regular Dimeters, 
which of course can admit no license in the final syllable, and 
-which must always be followed by a Paremiac. But as in 
this mode of division it must often happen that a single Metre 
remains before the final Parcemiac, that Metre is placed in a 
separate verse, and is termed a base, although it would be per- 
haps more properly called a supplement. 

The only restraint in Anapestics is, that an Anapeest must 
not follow a Dactyl, to prerent the concurrence of too many 
short syllables; that each Metre must end with a word; and 
that the third foot of the Paremiac must be an Anapzst. 

The most important rule of all in this metre, is that esta- 
blished by Bentley, in his dissertation on the Epistles of Pha- 
laris, viz. that the last syllable of each Anapestic verse is not 
common, as in Hexameters, &c. but that all the verses are 
considered as connected together in one continued succession 
till the versus Paremiacus finishes the whole, the last syllable 
of which may be long or short. 

The following are the scales of some of the Anapzstic 
Measures : 


265 


Anapestic Dimeter Acatalectic. 


ist. Metre. οί, Metre. 
ia oS Pe ree ΣΌΝ 
1 2 3 4 
we aed “-. tt Ned ἡ ὼω΄ς., -- Wt) ae 
— Vw ope ὃς Nat — 4 — αι at. Neat 


- A Parcemiac, or Dimeter Catalectic. 


Ist. Metre. Qd. Metre. 

1 2 ! 3 4 
~~ ere ON A ee --- 
es ot ὁ 2 ““-««᾿ἢς 


Anapestic Base, or Monometer Acatalectic. 
One Metre. 


CZESURA. 


(From Buttmann’s Grammar.—Everett’s translation. 


1. Cesura is properly the division of a Metrical, or Rhyth- 
mical connection, by the ending of a word. ‘There is accord- 
ingly, 1st. a Cesura of the Foot, 2d. a Cesura of the Rhythm, 
3d. a Cesura of the Verse, which must be carefully distin- 
guished, as the word Cesura, without qualification, is general- 
ly applied to all three. : 

2. The Cesura of the Foot, in which a word terminates in 
the middle of a Foot, is the least important, and without any 
great influence on the Verse, as the division into Feet is ina 
great degree arbitrary. 

3. The Cesura of the Rhythm, is that in which the Arsis? 
falls on the last syllable of a word, whereby the Arsis is se- 
parated from the Thesis. Such a final syllable receives, by 


1. That part of the Foot which receives the Ictus, the stress of the 
Rhythm, (the beat of the Time), is called Arsis, or Elevation; the rest 
of the Foot is called Thesis or Depression. The natural Arsis is the 
long syllable of the Foot; so that the Spondee and Tribrach leave it 
alike uncertain where the Arsis falls. 


266. 


the Ictus, a peculiar emphasis ; so that the Poets often place 
a short syllable in this situation, which becomes long thereby, 
and sustains alone the Arsis. This lengthening by Cesura, 
as it is called, is particularly familiar in Epic poetry ; as, 
Τηλέμαχξ | ποῖον oe ἔπος φύγεν ἕρκος ὀδόντων ; 
«Αὐτὰρ ἔπειτ᾽ αὐτοῖσι βέλος | ἐχεπευκὲς ἐφιεὶς. 
As this usage is principally observed in the Epic Poets, and 
as in Hexameters the Arsis is always on the beginning of the 
Foot, the Cesura of the Rhythm and the Cesura of the Foot 
coincide. ‘This has led to the erroneous doctrine, that the 
Cesura of the Foot lengthened the syllable. 

4. The Cesura of the Verse exists, when the termination 
of a word falls on a place in the Verse, where one Rhythm 
agreeable to the ear closes and another begins. ‘The estima- 
tion of this belongs to the minuter acquaintance with versifi- 
cation. In a more limited sense, by the Cesura of the Verse 
is understood such a Cesura in certain places in the Verse, 
one of which is necessary to every good Verse of the kind. 
This is what is meant when it is said of a Verse that it has no 
Cesura. Whereupon may be remarked, 

1st. That some kinds of Verses have their Cesura on a 
fixed place. Of this kind among the foregoing Verses are, Ist. 
the Pentameter, which requires a word to end in the middle 
of the centre Spondee. This Cesura can never be omitted. 
2d. The lambic Anapestic, and Trochaic Tetrameter Catalec- 
tic, which all have their natural Cesura at the end of the fourth 
Foot. This Cesura may be neglected. 

2d. Other kinds of Verse have more than one place for the 
Cesura, the choice of which is left to the poet. One, how- 
ever, generally predominates over the rest. In Hexameters 
this is commonly in the middle of the third Foot, and either 
directly after its Arsis, as 

Μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ, | Πηληϊάδεω ᾿““χιλλῆος 
Οὐκ ἄρα μοῦνον ἔην | ἐρίδων᾽ γένος ἀλλ᾽ ἐπὶ γαῖαν, 
or in the middle of the Thesis of a Dacty]l, 
*Avdou μοι ἔννεπε, Μοῦσα, | πολύτροπον, ὃς μάλα πολλά. 

The first species is called the masculine or male Cesura, 
and the second the female or Trochaic Cesura. It rarely 
happens that both are absent from the Foot. Should they be 
wanting, however, they are usually supplied by the male Ce- 
sura, in the second and fourth Feet, and if both be combined, 
the Verse is the more harmonious; as 

ἀλλὰ νέον | συνορινόμεγαι | κίνυντο φάλαγγες. 


267 


APPENDIX—A 


DIGAMMA. 
‘ I. 


I. That ancient language, out of which arose the Greek, the Latin, 
and the various branches of ‘Teutonic, had, both in the beginning of 
words, and between vowels in their internal structure, many conso- 
nants, which, in process of time, were partly altogether lost, and part] 
weakened into aspirate or vowel sounds. A portion of the Gree 
diphthongs proceeded from this attenuation or rejection. 

2. The sounds called Labial (7, 6, φ, f, v,) and Guttural («, y, x, ch, 
g, @,) were of most frequent occurrence. 

3. The attenuation of the gutiwrals displays itself in Quoi of, Quam 
av, Qualis ἁλίκος, ἡλίκος, &c. (And here, too, the transition from guttu- 
ral to labial is visible. Thus the oldest shape had probably both, as in 
QVoi; when the sound was softened, the a | dropped out, and 
Voi, that is, Foz ( Kol.) remained; while, in the next stage, the guttu- 
ral reveals again its mitigated form in the aspirate of fe 

4. But in labial sounds, at the beginning or in the middle of words, 
before vowels and even consonants, the ancient tongue was still more 
rich. The strongest of labial sounds is heard in the Latin F, which, 
in its figure and its place in the alphabet, answers to the Greek digam- 
ma—a letter, that seems to have agreed with F in its early pronuncia- 
tion also, before that was exchanged for the softer sound of W. 

5. This robust sound was attenuated. 

a. In Latin chiefly before e andi; thus Festa, festis, Felia, finum, 
became Vesta, vestis, Velia, vinum. 

b. In Greek it passed frequently into¢g or β; thus φράτρα for Foaroa, 
the form in the Elean inscription, φρύγανον (Lat. frutex), &c.; 
βρήτωρ, Boadépavros, and similar words in Molic; βρέμω (Lat. 
fremo), &c. 

6. It disappeared altogether, at least in the majority of dialects, from 
those words in which the AZolians substituted 6, as ῥήτωρ, ‘Padépavros, 
ῥαδινός ( ALO]. Boadiés), ῥόδον ( 210]. βρόδον) ; and from some others, as piv, 
ῥήγνυμι (Lat. frango), ῥῆξις (Feige in Alczeus, according to the authority 
of Trypho), the verb ἦν, ἧς, ἢ, “said,” (otherwise only attenuated under 
the form of div, dis, φῆ, or, in the Macedonian dialect, Biv, Bis, βῆ). 

7. As QVoi, QValis, show a guttural in connexion with a labial 
so, by a comparison of the forms φλᾷν and θλᾷν, φήρ and θήρ, φλίβω an 
θλίβω, φλιά and Oud (Etym. Mag. under Brpigo and φλιάν, we discover 
the labial sound before a dental in the ancient constitution of certain 
words. Thus the above were certainly Fda, FOjv (the Etym. M. ad- 
mits φθήρ and dip, Ὁ. 451. 1. 13.), FOB, Ἐθλιά; as also δέος, ἔδδεισεν Were 
originally Fdéos (the digamma remains in vereor), ἔρδεισεν. Through 
the abjection of one or the other letter came θλᾷν or Ἐλᾷν, φλᾷν ; θήρ or 
Ρήρ (Lat. fera), φήρ, which φήρ, according to Varro, de Ling. Lat. B. v. 
p. 45. was further softened by the Ionians into Sip. So φθίσας dropped 
its 0 in the form Ficas, preserved by Hesychius in the gloss yicus, φθείρας. 
In the same manner we may explain the /Kolic forms βελφῖνες, βελφοί, 
βέλεαρ (Etym. M. under βλήρ), equivalent to δελφῖνες, Δελφοί, δέλεαρ, by re- 
ference to the primitive βδελφῖνες, βδελφοί, Bdédeap; 50 that βὸ was a mid- 
dle sound between φθ and zr, as still perceived in βῥάλλω βδέλλω, and 
derivatives from these. 


268 


N. B. The German Zwo, i. 6. ὅσωο, has a similar combination, with 
8. intervening. In Greek the ς first dropped dut and éro passed into δύο, 
then the F also vanished and do produced δόω, dot». Thus the Latin is, 
compared with τις, the /Eol. gen. Fio, and the German dies-er, shows 
that the ancient form was τὶς, which, through the abjection of τ or Ὁ, 
or τε, became, in different tongues, ris, 7s, dieser. In the English this 
the digamma has passed into the aspirate. 

8. In the middle of words the digamma commonly passedinto v. In 
the beginning of a word also the name of Velia displays an » thus de- 
rived. At first, when founded by Phoceans from Ionia, the city’s name 
was Ελιε, but next, as Herodotus writes it, ‘Yé\n, and, posterior to his 

“time, this was changed to Βέλεα, and even to Ἔλεα, as it was in Strabo’s 
day. Compare with these varieties the series of its Latin appellations, 
Felia, Velia, Helia, Flea; and take the whole asa convincing proof ot 
the mutability and final extinction of a labial, once distinguished for a 
plenitude of life and vigor. 

9. Lastly, let the student compare vicus with οἶκος, vinwm with οἶνος, 
βάλλω with ἴαλλω, Βάκχος with "Luxyoc,—these will make it evident that 
the digamma and other labials may occasionally be transformed into o 
or«. The apparent change of the digamma, in Greek, into simple 
gamma, arose from a mere mistake of the grammarians, whe wrote the 
‘one for the other. Thus, in the Lexicon of Hesychius we find yéap, 
γισχῦν, and many more, for the genuine Féap, Εισχύν, &c. (in Lat. ver, 
vis, &C.) 

Il. 


1. The original force of the labial sound in the ancient digamma, 
and its attenuation in ¢, 8, or change into o, ει, or the aspirate, having 
been explained, we must now, for the better grounding of that which 
follows, collect from inscriptions, coins, and the hints supplied by old 
writers, some specimens of those words, that retained the letter under 
different shapes and in some dialects, while they dropped it in the more 
common branches of the Greek tongue. 

2. Under the first head we find, in the Elean inscription FAAEIQN i.e. 
Εἡλείων (com. ᾿Ηλείων) ; FEILOL (com. ἔπος; and thus, in Hesychius, ΓΕ 
πον 1. 6. Εἵπον, com. eirov); FAPI'ON Dor. for Fépyov (com. ἔργον ; com- 
pare the German werk and English work); FETA Dor. for F'érns 
(com. rns); FETEA (com. ἔτεα ; compare the Lat. vetws, vetwstus): in 
the Petilian tablet FOIKIAN (com. οἰκίαν ; compare the Lat. vicus): 
in a marble of Orchomenus FIKA TI (com. cixoc:—compare the Lace- 
dzemonian βείκατι); FEAATIH (as the name of Elatea); FETIA 

com. ἔτεα). ᾿ 

ι 3. Under the second head, or that of coins, may be mentioned FA, 
an abbreviation for Fa\eiwy, in harmony with the inscription already 
noticed, on those of Elis; Tagiwv, i. 6. Fatiwv, i. 6. ᾽Α ξίων, on those of 
Axus in Crete. : ; 

4. Thirdly, the hints supplied by ancient lexicographers and others 
are numerous; thus Βαλικιώτης, says Hesychius, was the Cretan word 
for συνέφηβος, i. 6. ἘΓαλικιώτης (com. ἡλικιώτης): Favat and Faviip (com. 
ἄναξ and ἀνήρ) are given by Dionysius of Halicarnassus as Holic forms, 
and Fiiva¢ is also quoted from Aleman by Apollonius; Féev (com. ἕθεν) 
and Fz (com. οἷ) are obtained from Sapp? and Alceeus; Feipava (com. 
εἰρήνη) is given as Holic by Priscian; Γέντο and 1] ἕννου, i. 6. Févro and 
Févvov, are explained ; the one in Suidas and Hesychius by ἔλαβεν, dvéda- 
Bev, and the other in Hesychius by λάβε, that is, they are the old digam- 
mated shapes of ἕλετο, 2\ro,and by the same substitution through which 
ἦνθε stood for ἦλθε, ἕντο, and of ἕλου, by a Similar substitution ἕνου or Zrvov. 


269 


To this list many might be added, and its limits might be greatly ex- 
tended by a comparison of the Greek with the Latin and. Teutonic 
tongues. ie ᾿ 


ΠῚ. 


1. From that which has been advanced it appears, that the labial sound, 
universally, but especially in its most remarkable form, the digamma, 
was retained in those words which dropped itin the Attic and common 
dialects, not by the AZoliansalone, but also by Ionians, Cretans, and Do- 
ric tribes. It has been traced likewise in the languages of other nations 
besides the Greek. The just conclusion is, that this sound was a pecu- 
liarily of the old Grecian, and the tongues related to it, and thatits alpha- 
betic character was called Aolic only because the AXolians continued to 
employ it,as the Latinsemployed their F, in writing, while, with the 
other Greeks, it served merely for a mark of number. 

2. Next to general analogy, the foregoing conclusion is supported by 
the testimony of ancientauthors. Thus, Dionysius Halicar. (Archeol. 
Rom. p. 16.) treats of the digamma as a letter belonging to the aNcIENT 
Greeks, who prefixed it, he says, to most words beginning with a vowel; 
and Trypho (Mus, Crit. No. I. p. 34.) affirms that the Jonians and Do- 
rians made use of-it as well as the A¢olic tribes. 

3. The question as to its use by Homer must, therefore, first be stat- 
ed without reference to the condition of his poems; thus, 

Is it likely that the Homeric poetry, composed in an early period of 
Greek history, should have possessed a sound belonging to that ancient 
epoch, and to the original constitution of the Greek tongue ? oc 

4. We may be inclined to answer this question in the affirmative, al- 
though the sound, in the course of centuries, disappeared from the Ho- | 
meric poems, and wasthe more certainly neglected in committing them 
to writing, inasmuch as in Attica, where this process took place, the al- 
phabetic character of the digamma was out of use. ; 

5. The silence of the ancient grammarians as to Homer’s use of the 
digamma does not make against this opinion. ‘They found their copies 
of the poet destitute of that character, and thought the less of restoring 
it to its original rights, from perceiving it to be, in actual use, confined 
to the Aolie dialect. 

6. Still, of asound that exerted so decided an influence over the quan- 
tity and form of words, some traces must have remained in the Home- 
ric poetry, which no lapse of time could efface. And these it should 


be our next step to discover. 


IV. 


1. In the list of digammated words we placed and explained γέννου. 
and γέντο, i. 6. Févvov and Févro, old forms of ἕλου and ἕλετο. This γέντο 
or Févro is found in Hom. Il. N. v. 25, twice in X. vv. 476, 477, and in 
one or two other passages—in all required by the metre, which would be 
destroyed by throwing the initial letter away. : 

2. Of the same nature are γδούπησαν and γδοῦπος, that is Εδούπησαν and 
Εδοῦπος, old forms of δούπησαν {ἐδούπησαν) and δοῦπος. See Hom, Il. A. 45. 
F. 672. H. 411. K. 329, A. 152. Μ, 235. N. 154. II. 88. Odyss. 0. 465. 
QO. 112. 180. 

3. Onthe same principle may be explained the word dgavddver, Od. IT. 
387. Instead of the ¢, itshould be written with a digamma, ἀρανδάνει, 
that is, the verb is compounded not of ἀπὸ and ἁνδάνω a very suspicious 
derivation, but of te) al Favdavo, the old shape of ἁνδάνω. 

2 


270 


Vv. 


1. Where the digamma itself has vanished, the traces of its original 
presence haveremained. Nowhere is this so evident as in the pronoun of 
the third person. Its ancient forms, as was partly pointed out in the list 
of digammated words, were Féo, Féev, Fot, Fé. That this pronunciation 
endured still at the epoch of the Homeric dialect, is demonstrated first 
by the negative οὔ, which is so placed before them, as if not an aspirated 
vowel, but a consonant followed it: thus, ἐπεὶ οὔ ἔθεν ἐστὶ χερειών, 1]. A. 
114. οὔ of ἔπειτα, 1]. B.392. Compare Il. E. 53. P. 410. Od. A. 262. ἐπεὶ οὔ 
é, Il. Q.214. Now, had the pronunciation not been οὔ FeGev, οὔ For, οὔ Fe, 
both the pronunciation, and afterwards the orthography, must have been 
oby fev, ody οἱ, ody~t, like οὐχ bein, Od. X. 412. οὐχ ἑσπέσθην, 1]. I’. 239. 
and other similar collocations. 

2. Another clear frace of a lost digamma is the absence of the para- 
gogic N before this pronoun in δαῖέ οἱ, 1. E. 4. &®xé of αὖθι, Τ|, Z. 281, οἵ 
κέ é, Il. I. 155. and a number of other passages, which must have been 
δαῖέν οἱ, κέν of, κέν £, and soon, had they not been pronounced daié For, κέ 
Fo, κέ Fe, and the like. 

A great many examples of apparent Azatus will be remedied by re- 
storing these words to theiroriginalform. See Iliad A. 510. B.239. X, 
142. 172. Od. E. 353. Z. 133, &c. The collocation dé of alone, without 
elision, occurs in more than one hundred instances. 

3. In a great number of instances, also, a short syllable is lengthened 
before the cases of this pronoun, without the aid of cesura,—a most 
decisive proof that they had in their beginning a consonant which gave 
the force of position to preceding syllables. 


VI. 


1. By similar tests we may prove that many other words had the di- 
gamma in Homeric versification, especially such as are known to have 
had it in the ancient form of the Greek tongue. 

a. When short vowels suffer no elision before them: as αὐτοὺς δὲ 
ἑλώραι Il. A. 4. (read Feddora and compare Τ ἕντο, i. 6. Févro 
above); ᾿Ατρείδης re ἄναξ, 1. A.'7. (read Favaé, and compare above 
II. 4. 

b. When in composition, also, neither clision nor crasis takes place : 
aS διαειπέμεν, ἐπιάνδανε, ἀπόειπε, Aepyos, ἀαγής ἀέκητι, ἀελπῆς, ἑκάερ- 
γος, θεοειδής, all of which are compounded of words that, accord- 
ing to various authorities, had the digamma in the old language. 
When verb:, where it appears that they should have the temporal 
augment, take the syllabic, as ἔαξε, Zagav, ΤΊ. H. 270. Od. Γ΄. 298, 
ἐάλη, Il. N. 408; have the digamma converted into υ still remain- 
ing ; aS εὔαδεν, 1]. 2. 340. P. 647. ~ 

2. In this way it may be easily demonstrated, that most of those words, 
which were pronounced with the digamma in the ancient tongue, re- 
tained the same peculiarity in the Homericlanguage. The non-elision 
of vowels before them will alone be a sufficient test with reference to 
many vocables. Thus, with reference to several beginning witha; and 
particularly, under the words ἄναξ and ἀνάσσω, see the Misc. Crit. of 
Dawes, p. 141. who has collected all the examples in Homer, and amend- 
ed those passages which seem to oppose this notion. 

3. With reference to words that begin with e, it is necessary to ob- 
serve; 

a. That the syllabic augment, originally, did not differ from redu- 
plication, as the forms τετύκοντο, λελαθέσθαι, λελάκοντο, λελαχεῖν, 
“ πεφραδέειν testify), so that digammated verbs would have the di- 

~ gamma prefixed also to their augments. For example, since 


a 
’ 


271 


ἔλπομαι was really Ἐτξέλπομαι, and εἴκω Feixw, therefore  δυσῆα 
ἐέλπετο, Od. Ψ, 345. should be ᾿Οδυσῆα ἘΣΕ ἕλπετο : εἰς ὦπα ἔοικε 
ll. I’. 158. should be εἰς ὦπα FéForxe, and 50 1 similar instances. 

Ὁ. But since, even in Homer’s time, the first consonant of the redu- 
plication was so far shaken, that it appeared only in certain 
words, and in these not wniversaily, (for we find ἔλαχον, ἔλαχε, 
&c. as well as λελάχητε, Il. VW. 76. λελάχωσι, I. H. 800.), so it is 
manifest that the Heanttie before « may be equally affected, 
and that there is nothing inexplicable in such collocations as 
δεδάηκας EFouxe, Od. O. 146. ὅστις Bot τ᾽ ἐπέροικε, li. 1΄, 392. and a 
few more of the same kind. 

4. Homer appears to have preserved the digamma in the following 
words, besides those already mentioned: ἔαρ, ἴδον, οἶδα and other parts of 
that verb; εἶδος, εἴδωλον, εἴκοσι, ἑκών, ἕκητι, εἰλέω and its varieties and de- 
rivatives; ἑλίσσω, ἕλιξ, ἕννυμι and its derivatives; ἔπος, εἶπον, &e. ; fs and 
ὅς ; ἔργον, ἔοργα, Sec. ; ἐρέω, ἔῤῥω, ἕσπερος, Erns, ἔτος, ἡδύς and ἥδομαι ; 700s, 
ἴον, ἰονθάς, is, ἴσος, ἴσημι, ἴτυς, οἶκος and words connected with it; οἶνος and 
its derivatives. 

5. Again, some words seem to have been digammated by Homer, as 
to the digamma of which, neither inscriptions nor any other relics of 
antiquity afford evidence. Suchare ἅλις, ἀλῆναι, ἁλῶναι, ἀραιύς, ἄρνες, ἄστυ, 
Edvov, ἔθειραι, ἔθνος, ἕκαστος, ἕκηλος, ἤνοψ, “Ἥρη, ἠχέω, ἰαχή, ἱκμάς, οὐλαμός, 
οὗλος. 


wir. 


1. But few words, however, are used by the poet, without exception, 
in the manner required by the digamma, with which they commenced; 
viz. such as but rarely occur. ‘These are ἁλῶναι, dpatés, ἕδνον, ἔθειραι, 
ἔθνος, ἕσπερος, Ens, Eppw, tivo, ἴον, todvedés, ἰονθάς, οὐλαμός. 

2. In all the rest, either a greater or less number of instances oppose 
thedigamma. But few, however, as we have seen, in the case of ἕο, οἷ, ἕ, 
&c. Next to these, the digamma is maintained most steadily in the 
words ἄναξ, ἄστυ, εἶμα, and cognate vocables; and ἔοικε (FéForxe or ἔξοικε), ἃ 
word which occurs in 115 places, only nine of which reject the digamma. 
‘With regard to the exceptions, in the case of these words, therefore, it 
may be received as certain, that the ignorance of later times, when the 
digamma had been banished from the Homeric poems, and the altera- 
tions to which the poems were subjected, were the real causes of their 
introduction. 

3. But in the case of other words, considered as having had the digam- 
ma,so many places and such undeniable readings militate against the use 
of this letter, that the ignorance above alluded to, and the alterations pro- 
duced by it, will not suffice to clear up all difficulty. Thus, there appears 
in twenty-five places βοῶπις zérvia” Hon, leading us tothe form Fjon; and, 
on the other hand, we find θεὰ λευκώλενος “Hon in twenty-one places, sup- 
ported by χρυσόθρονος “Hon in two. Even in the same book this differ- 
ence occurs: thus, λευκώλενος “Ἔρη, IL. A. 55. πότνια “Ηρη, ibid. 551. χρυσό- 
θρονος "Hon, ibid. 611. Inthe same way πότνια "Ἔ βη, Il. A. 2. is opposed 
by καλλίσφυρον “Ἥβην, Od. A, 602. μελιηδέα οἶνον. Il. Z, 258. K. 579. Od. 1. 
208, &e. by μελιηδέος οἴνου, Il. ΣΦ, 545. Od. I’. 46, The like happens with 
regard to the word ἄρνες, ἑκάς, ἕκαστος, ἑκών, ἔργον, ἡδύς, Ἴλιος, Ἴρις, ἴσος, οἶκος, 

4. The use of the digamma is equally variable in the tenses and 
moods of verbs. Thus, to Fiay, and the substantive Fray4, which re- 
veal themselves in μέγα ἴαχον, Il. A. 506. P. 317. μέγα ἰάχουσα, I]. E. 343. 

évero ἰαχή, Il. A. 456, &c. is opposed ἀμφιαχυῖαν, not dugiFrayvtay, 1], B, 
16. Against droreérn, Il. 1. 506. αἴσιμα παρθειπών, Π, Z. 62. ἘΠ. 121. vd, 
δὲ pe παρξειποῦσι ἄλοχος, ΤΠ. Z. 337. stands pi σε παρείπῃ, Tl. A. 555. From 


272 


Faéyw comes ig in ἵππειον dé of ἥξε, Tl, VY. 392. although Fier, ἔξαξεν, 
ἐβάγη, are so frequent and established, that ἕαξα and ἐάγην remained even 
in the Attic dialect. Against Févat, Fdvacce, stands jvacce; against Ἐὲ- 
λίσσω, εἱλίπους; against Fide, Ipexdetdns. ‘Thus Fidov and ἴδον, ἐροικώς and 
εἰκυῖα, Féros ἐνίσπω, ὅτε. contradict one another. 

5. Since, then, on the one hand, the existence of the digamma, and, 
on the other, its frequent suppression, have appeared as facts, and since 
the former can as little be mistaken as the latter denied, or ascribed 
solely to the ignorance of grammarians and transeribers, the question 
arises, How can these apparent contradictions be reconciled ? 

6. Priscian says that, in seansion, the AZolians sometimes reckoned 
the digamma for nothing. The example adduced by him is ἄμμες δ᾽ 
Feipavay, from which it appears that δέ, in apostrophe before the digam- 
ma, swppresses thatdetter, in the same manner as that in which it sup- 
presses, in the like case, a following aspirate. Accordingly, the following 
places do not militate against the digamma, since in them it was sup- 

ressed by δ᾽ ; οἴσετε δ᾽ dpv’ ἕτερην, 1]. Τ'. 103; περισσείοντο δ᾽ ἔθειραι, 1]. T. 382, 

but περισσείοντο ἔθειραι, i. 6. Ῥέθειραι, Il. X. 315.); πειρήθη δ᾽ ἕο αὐτοῦ, Il. <1 
384. and so, in various passages, ἵππῳ δ᾽ εἰσάμενος ; τόν δ᾽ ἴδον ; ris δ' οἵδ᾽ εἰ; 
᾿Γηλεμάχῳ δ᾽ εἰκυῖα ; νῦν δ᾽ ἕκαθεν ; εὖ δ᾽ οἴκαδ᾽ ἱκέσθαι ; ἐν δ' οἶνον ἔχευεν, &c. &c. 

7. The licence given to the simple δέ cannot be refused to ὅδε, ὧδε, 
- οὐδέ, and so τύδ᾽ εἰπέμεναι, 1]. H. 375. dd’ εἴπησιν, 1]. H. 300. οὐδ᾽ ᾧ παιδὶ 
ἀμύνει, Il. 11, 522. may stand without offence. 

8. Γέ exerts the same force as δέ in the suppression of a following 
aspirate. Since, then, dé suppresses the digamma as well as the aspirate, 
the same privilege may be allowed to γέ; and we may preserve, with- 
out any offence to the digamma, αὐτὸρ dy’ ὃν φίλον υἱὸν, 1], Z. 474. εἰ κείνω γ᾽ 
ἐπέεσσι, Il. &. 208. and, in other places, τοί γ᾽ ἴσασι; ἢ σύ γ᾽ ἄνακτος, &c. 

9. If, then, we may consider it as proved that, in the case of apos- 
trophe after δέ, ὅδε, ὧδε, οὐδέ, μηδέ, γέ, dye, the digamma of the next word 
disappears, it can scarcely be doubted that, in conformity with this prac- 
tice, the digamma should be dropped after other apostrophised words 
also. Hence we may deduce the general rule, that after apostrophe the 
digamma is thrown away. And thus, according to the analogy of 
δ᾽ εἰσάμενος, δ' εἰκυῖα, &c., we find ὀφρ᾽ εἰδῇ, 1]. ©. 406. ὀφρ᾽ εἴπω, Il. Ἡ. 68. 
and, in asimilar manner, ἵν᾽ εἰδῆς ; ἅρματ᾽ ἀνάκτων ; κέδν’ εἰδυῖα ; κάλ᾽ εἰκυῖα ; 
εἴσομ᾽ ἑκάστην ; ἔσθι' ἔκηλος ; τέρμαθ᾽ ἑλίσσομεν ; δάμνημ᾽ ἐπέεσσι, &ce. 

10. Still a much greater number of places remains that reject the 
incipient digamma in words to which it belonged, without any apos- 
trophe to suppress that letter: so that the question arises, Whether the 
digamma may be supplanted as well by the necessities of versification as 
by the influence of apostrophe ? 

11. To account, generally, for the disappearance of the digamma, 
let us observe, 

a. What was previously said as to its attenuation and rejection, 
whence we may understand how some words, originally digam. 
mated, such as Ε'ανήρ, Fedévn, Fido, entirely lost the digamma in 
the Homeric dialect ; and how others, though they retained di- 
gamma in themselves, lost it in their derivatives, as Fig: in ἤ[φθι- 
pos, ᾿Ιφικλείδης ; Fidov in ᾿Ἰδομενεῦς ; Fedoow in εἱλίποδες!, Féros in ἐνίσπω. 

b. The disappearance of other consonants from the beginning οἵ 
words. Thus μάλευρον and ἄλευρον ; καπήνη (Thessalonian) and 
ἀπήνη ; especially that of σ in as, Lat. sal, Eng. salt; ἕε, Lat. sese, 
Eng. self; tZew, Lat. sedere, Eng. sit; ἕξ, Lat. sex, Eng. six, 
ἑπτά, Lat. septem, Eng. seven; ὑπέρ, Lat. super; ὑπό, Lat. sub; 
ἧς, Lat. sus, Eng. sow; and from the middle of words, as Μοῦσα, 
ἘΡΉΜΩΝ Maa; Ἰζλέουσα, Spart. Krewd  παιδουσῶν, Spart. παιόδωᾶν ; 

ουσάων, Lat. Musarum; ποιητάων, Lat. poetarum, &c. 


ΠῚ 


} 


273 


12. Moreover, that the same word, at the same epoch, might be pro- 
nounced with or without the digamma, according to the exigencies of 
metre,—as Βεῖπον or sizov, Fépyov or £oyov,—we learn from the analogy of 
words, which, in like manner, retain or reject some other initial conso- 
nant. Thus, - 

K in κιών, ἰών : as, λέχοσδε κιών, 1]. I’. 447, and in other places, but 
Αἴαντος ἰών, Tl. A. 138, &c.: the latter forms (idv, ἰοῦσα, ἴοιεν, &c.) 
are found in about 200 places, the former (κιών, κιοῦσα, κίομεν, κίοιτε, 
&c.) in about 50. 

A in λείβω, εἴβω : as, Act λείβειν, Il. Ζ. 266, ὥς. but δάκρυον εἴβει, 1]. 
T. 323, &c.: in λαίϊψηρός, αἰψνηρός : as, μένος λαιψηρά τε γοῦνα, I, T. 
323, &c.: as in λαιψηρός, αἱιψηρός : as, μένος λαιψηρά τε γοῦνα, 1]. X. 
204, &c. but παύομαι" aidnods δὲ κόρος κρυεροῖο γύοιο, Od, A. 103. 
Compare Il. 'T. 276, &c. ᾿ 

in μία ἴα: as τὼ δὲ μιῆς περὶ νηὸς ἔχον πόνον, Il. Ο. 416, &c. but τῆς 
μὲν ἰῆς στιχὰς ἦρχε, Τὶ. II. 173, &c. as the necessity of metre may 
demand. The form ἴα is even occasionally found employed 
merely to avoid the repetition of p, as ἐν δὲ tj (read 7’ i) τιμῇ ἡμὲν 
κακός, I]. 1. 319; just as, without necessity, the ¢, which represents 
digamma in the word φῆ, is often dropped, since this is always ἦ 
at the beginning of a verse. 

I’ in γαῖα, aia: as éorovayigero γαῖα; 1]. B. 95, το, but pvoiZoos ata, Il. 
I’. 243, ἄς. 

13. Since, then, κιών, κίομεν, λείβω, λαιψηρός, μιῆς, γαῖα, γαίης, γαῖαν, &c., 
according to the exigencies of the metre, might also be pronounced as 
ἐών, ἴομεν, εἴβω, aipypds, iis, αἷα, αἴης, atav, &c. it need not seem extraordinary 
that digammated words should, on the same principle, sometimes throw 
away the digamma: especially since, in their case, the mutability of 
the letter, its suppression after apostrophe, and its entire extinction in 
later times, come in aid of such a supposition. Thus we may allow, 
in one series of examples, the collocations ἀλλὰ, Βάναξ, ἀλλὰ Βἀνασσᾶ, Ta- 
λαϊνίδαο Favaxtos, &c.; and, in another series, γὰρ ἄνακτος, μὲν ἄναξ, ἧς περ ἄν- 
ασσε, θυμὸν ἄνακτος, &C.: im one place φάρμακα Ῥειδώς, and in another, εἴγε 
μὲν εἰδείης ; In one place ἄνδρα Féxacroy, and in another, θυμὸν ἑκάστῳ; and 
SO Fénos OF ἔπος, Fépyov oY ἔργον, ὅτε. 

14. That which has been here admitted on the grounds of analogy 
and induction, namely, that the digamma may stand or fall, according 
to the exigencies of metre, is demonstrated—(not to mention again 
γέντο, i. 6. Févro or Βέλτο, Which is found in some places, while εἵλετο ap- 
pears in others)—in the word épiydouros, i. 6. ἐριΕδοῦπος, Which becomes 
épidovros when the syllable requires to be shortened: thus, ἐριγδούποιο, Tl. 
KE. 672, &¢. ἐριγδουπος πόσις “Hons, Il. H. 411, &e. but ἀκτάων ἐριδοῦπον, 1]. 
Y. 50. αἰθούσης ἐριδούπου, 1]. Ὡ. 323, &e. It is demonstrated also in # “as,” 
which is ¢f,i. 6. Ff, in Il. B. 144., since on that line («win δ᾽ ἀγορὴ, ὡς 
κύματα μακρὰ θάλασσης. the Scholiast remarks that Zenodotus wrote φὴ Ké- 
ματα; and thus tooat Il. ΚΞ. 499.— δὲ φῆ, κώδειαν ἀνασχὼν, | πέφραδέ re Τ ρώ- 
ἐσσι, κα εὐχόμενος ἔπος ηὔδα. Zenodotus gives ὃ δέ, φὴ κώδειαν dvacydy | πέ- 
φραδὲ κι τι λ. Here Homeric usage forces us to abandon φῆ for ἔφη, and 
the rules of versification force us to retain the consonant in φή, unless, 
with Aristarchus, in spite of sense and connexion, we give up the verse 
altogether, from an uncritical horror of the word φῆ or Fj. 


* Doubtless from manuscripts. It may be observed, by the w. Ys that 
Homeric criticism would gain much in clearness and certainty, if more 
attention were paid to Zenodotus, and to his important and remarkable 
readings of the poet’s text, than to the often partial and pedantic Aristar- 
chus. oe 


274 


15. Lastly, in furtherance of our proofs, we may cite also those forms, 
which, as we shall presently see, had the digainma in the middle of the 
word, and yet dropped it as the verse might require: thus, sixedos i. 6. 
EPxndos and ἕκηλος, αὐτὰρ 1. 6. dFrap and drdp,’Arpeidao i. 6. ’Arpeidaro and 
"Arpeidew, ἀλεύασθαι and ἀλέασθαι, &c.; as, in Latin, both amaverunt and 
amarunt (amaerunt), paraverunt and pararunt, audiverant and audie- 
vant, Were in use at the same time. 


Vill. 


Of the results of the foregoing investigations with regurd to the treat- 
ment of the Homeric text. 


1. We may, in the first place, admit as correct the list of digammated 
words in Homer which Heyne has given in an Eacwrsus on the lliad, 
book T. (vol. vii. pp. 708.—772.) leaving it to future research to as- 
certain whether one or two words may not yet be added to that cata- 
logue ; and, this done, we may, 

a. in the treatment of the text, prefer those readings which are con- 
formable to the use of the Kgaiiins, since it is more probable 
that this letter might have been dropped by grammarians and 
transcribers ignorant of its claims, than that the poetshould, with- 
out metrical necessity, abandon it. 

b. If the digamma cannot recover its right by critical aid without 
appealing to conjecture, then the place should be left undisturbed, 
since it is doubtful whether it has been corrupted by the altera- 
tions of grammarians, or rejects the digamma in obedience to 
the will of the poet. It is only in this way that, without giving 
up the doctrine of the digamma, the Homeric text can be pre- 
served from perpetual and flagrant violations. 

2. With greater confidencemay we, before digammated words, throw 
away the paragogic v, Write od instead of οὐχ; and dismiss those parti- 
cles, which have been inserted instead of the digamma, evidently from 
ignorance, to fill up the verse. Thus ἔνθεν ἄρ᾽ oivigovro for ἔνθεν Fowvigov- 
ro, Ul. H. 472. ὑππόταν ἰσόμορον for δππότε Βισόμορον, LU. Ο, 209. μετά τ᾽ ἤθεα 
καὶ νομόν for μετὰ Βήθεα, 1]. Z. 511, &c. &e. Here also it is left to future 
observation to determine how far, through these and similar safe altera- 
tions, the passages apparently opposed to the digamma may be dimi- 
nished in number, and the list of words, whichin Homer’s usage retain- 
ed the digamma, be augmented. 


IX. 


1. In order not to curtail or disconnect the history of the digamma, 
and at the same time for the sake of giving yet more support to the doc- 
trines already propounded, we shall add what is to be said as to this 
letter in the middle of words,—a subject belonging rather to the dialect 
than to the versification of Homer. 

2. In the Latin tongue we perceive it joined to consonants in comburo 
from con-uro ; sylva from ὕλη, or the old ὕλξη ; cervus from κέραος, Aol. 
xépeos, Old xépeFos (kerevus, kervus, cervus, “the horned animal”); volvo 
from FedéFo, FAFw; salvus from caéFos; arva from dpéFw,as vivo from 
Biorw; curvus from γῦρος, which must have been yipros. In Greek we 
find, in Suidas, δερβιστήρ, i. 6, δερΕιστήρ, from δείρω, and ὀλβάχνιον, i. 6. 
ὀλεάχνιον, a vessel in which the οὖλαι (of which the true form thus ap- 
scl to have been 4\ra:) were deposited ; we find also ἐπίβδας, 1. 6. ἐπὶ 

ari, according to the Scholiast on Pind. Pyth. iv. 249. and σιβδήν, there 
quoted ; ῥύμβος from fiw inthe Etym. Magn. Add icFos, ἄμβορος. The 
sound is retained in γαμβρός, μεσημβρίη. ‘To this class belongs also the 


275 


well-known AFYTO, properly arré, in the Delian inscription.. Now as 
ἴσος, ovAat, yooos, have come from FicFos, \Fat, γύρεος, 50 similar long 
vowels and diphthongs appear to be of similar origin, as οὐλαμός, ὁρούω 
ffom ὁρόξο, τιμῆ, from τίξω, τιμή. SO ὅμτλος, πέδτλον͵ πίδαξ, φῦλον, ψύχω, 
ψυχή, πτύω. 

3. The digamma stands also between vowels: avarus, ἄατος (éFaros) 
dros; Achivi, ’AyaFoi; @vum, airdv; avernus, éFopvos; Argivi, ’Apyei- 
Fo; bos bovis, Bors Borés; Davus, Aarés, according to Priscian; Bios 
compare vivus ; βιόω, vivo; clavis, κλαΐς; divus, dios; levis λεῖος (AEF ws); 
lava, λούω (\6Fw); Mavors, Mars, pirw; novus, vives; TIF Q, bibo 3 rivus, 
foFos; probus, roots, ALO). zparis. Add ταξώς \aFds (Villois. Proleg. Hom. 
Il. p. iv.); δάριον Aleman (καὶ χεῖμα πῦρ re δάξιον, rab ων 547.); EF A- 
OIOIX in the Elean inscription, AIFI on the Olympic helmet, and XI- 
TEYEY%I, i. e. SIVEFEYSI, in the Sigean inscription. 

4. To this head belong in Hesychius AiBerés, ἀετός, (ep yator).— ABn- 
δόνα, 'andéva.— Ακροβᾶσθαι, ixaxote.y,— EBacov, ἔασον, (Lvpaxosoror), thus ἐάω, 
éFdw, ἐβάω, compare what Gregor. Corinth. quotes as Dorie τὸ ἔα eta, 
τὸ ἔασον εὔασον. Δαβελός, dards, (Adxwres),—OaBaxév, θακόν, thus θαΡακόν, θαβα- 
x6v, θαακόν, Oaxév.— From the Pamphylian dialect, in Eustath. ad Hom. 
Od. p. 1654. φάβος, βαβέλιος ὁρούβω, OF, Since ov arises from the change 
of the digamma, more properly 4p68w.—To this head appertains also 
what Priscian says p. 547. and more fully at p. 710, viz. that the AZo- 
lians placed the digamma between two vowels; “this is proved,” he 
says, ‘‘ by very ancient inscriptions, written in the oldest characters, 
which I haveseen on many tripods.” He cites, p. 547. Δημοφάξφιων, which, 
at p. 710. he calls Δημοφύξων, and, at p. 547, AaFoxérwv, which, at p. 710, 
becomes AaoxéFwv. Δημοφάξων, AaFoxéFwv are right; the other forms in 
~swv must have arisen, after the neglect of the digamma, from the con- 
traction of -dwy to -ων, and the insertion of o. 

From all this it seems already clear that, in the old language, the 
digamma appeared very commonly in words between the open vowels. 

5. It has already been stated that, before a vowel, the digamma often 
passed into vu, in Greek into v. Priscian quotes from Latin the nwune 
mare nunc sili@ of Horace, and the zenam solitit diu ligatam of Catul- 
lus. As aves gives auceps and augur, faveo, fautor, and lavo, lautus, so 
from diw, 1. 6. dFiw, came avio, and with the insertion of ὦ, avdio, audio, 
from γαίω, i.e. yaFiw, came gavio (hence gavisus), and gaudeo, gaudium. 
The Etym. Mag. has olic atws, ἡ ἠώς ; Hesychius has atws, ἡμέρα; Eus- 
tathius, p. 548, has αὔρηκτος for ἄῤῥηκτος from ἄρρηκτος infractus ; and He- 
racleides has, as AVolic, δαυλός, δαλός (Spartan δαβελός), so that it was daFé- 
és, δαβελός͵ δαυλός, dadés. Observe also iadyev, ἰάχεν, (in German jauchen, 
jauchzen). 


Χ, 
Of the digamma in the middle of words in Homer. 


1. The digamma appears connected with a consonant, in Homer, in 
μέμβλετο, μέμβλωκε, παρμέμβχωκε. This verb was péPrw μέδλω, aS, in Hesy- 
chius, we find βέβλειν" μέλλειν (or, as it should be written, μέλειν) Thus 
péPAopar, μεμέβλετο, μέμβλετο, and so forth. So we may explain ἄδδην, ἀδ- 
δηκότες, ἔδδεισεν, ὑποδδείσαντες, aS having been ἄδΡην, ddPnkérns, ἔδΡεισεν, brod- 
Fetcavres, compared with ἴσος, ἄμμόρος, appnxros, from icFos, ἄμξορος, &Fonk- 
τος, compared also with duellum, which was dvellum, dbelium, and 
hence bellum (perhaps connected with θύελλα), as Duillius, Duellius, 
were called likewise Billius, Bellius. *“Adrny is found also as ἄδην, 
without the digamma,; and thus it augments the list of words, which 
retain, or drop this letter according to the demands of metre. 

2. We may conclude, from preceding remarks, that the digamma 


276 


appeared also between open vowels, in Homeric Greek. ’Atw, ἀΐσσω, 
dis, Ants, ’Apfiov, &c. since they are never found contracted into αἴω, ἄσσω, 
οἷς, κλῆς, ᾿Αρῇῆον, were evidently pronounced ἀξίω, dFicow, ὄξις, κληξίς, 
᾿Αρήξιον͵ as ἀέκων, depyos, &c. Were ἀξέκων, ἄξεργος, &c. Thus likewise θα- 
Faxés, OaFaccety, ἔξασον, ἄξεθλον, aFei (αἰεί), ἀξείδω, ἀξείρω, ἀξέστιος (NOt dvéc- 
τιος), "AFidns, ἀξίδηλος, ddoFd, (ἁλωάγν, ἀξολλής, aFodg (OE), ἄξυρ, dFoorip, ἄξος 
(αὖος), ἀξαλέος (αὐαλέος) aF rij (dirn), GF rph (dirph) German athmen, γεραξός 
(γεραιός) or γραξός German grau, anciently grav, daFio, δάξω (duiw), δήξιος 
éFavés, xpaFaivw (κραιαίνω), from KPA, KPAQ, KPAFQ German kraf-t, 
λαξάς (Adas), λάξιγξ, AaFéorns, λέξων (German Leu, anciently Lev, whence 
Lowe), éFas (ots) gen. dFaros (οὔατος), ὀίω, πνέξω, (πνείω), φαξεννός (φαεινός), 
χίξω, χράξω, yoéFos, together with all substantives and verbs of the 
same kind having a vowel before the final vowel. In case of contrac- 
tion the digamma disappears, thus ’Arpeidaro, *Arpeidao, ’Arpeidew. 

3. The Homeric language is full of traces of the digamma changed into 
v. It appears in the termination ews, as βασιλεῦς, ᾽Ο δυσσεῦς, ’Arpsis,’ Ayir- 
λεῦς͵ Τυδεύς, words of which the roots areseen more clearly in the Latin 
forms Ulysses, Achilles, and are perfectly revealed in the forms AXLE, 
TVTE, ATPE, on old Italian works of art. But like βασιλέες, so must 
there have been βασιλῆξος, βασιλέξω (βασιλεύων), βασιληξίς, (τιμῆς βασιληΐόος, 
Il. Ζ. 193.) βασιλήξιτος (γένος βασιλήϊον), Od. IY. 401, The digamma re- 
mained in the vocative βασιλεῦ, not to leave the root open and ending 
in the feeble ε, and in the dat. plur. βασιλεῦσι, combined with σ, as in the 
nominative singular. 

4. In like manner, the digamma remained in future and aorist tenses, 
supported by c, though it disappeared where it stood unsupported be- 
tween vowels; since ἐμπνεύσῃ, 1]. T. 159, &c. θεύσεαι, 1], FP. 623. θεύσεσθαι, 
Il. A. 700. κλαύσομαι, Il. X. 87. κλαῦσε, Od. Q. 292. πλεύσεσθαι, Od. M. 25. 
xeaton, 1]. E. 138. demonstrate that their verbs, θέω, κλάω, mvéw, χράω, 
were once θέξω, k\éFw, πνέξω, χράξεω, (German graben); and, further, 
the parts and derivatives of ἀλεείνω, κάω, κλέω, fiw, yéw, AS ἀλεύασθαι, καῦμα, 
κλυτός, ῥυτός, χυτός, point to ἀλέξω, κάξθω, κλέξω, (properly to make a noise, 
so the German kleffen, applied to dogs—as the German gafien, Eng. 
gape, may be compared with χάξω (χάω, yaivw), &e, 

5. In some verbs, the digamma is either retained or dropped in the 
resent, aS δέω, or δεύω, or is not at all thrown away, as βασιλεύω, ἱερεύω. 
n some the σ is suppressed instead of it, as yeiw, (not χεύσω), Od. B. 

222: and so χεῦον), Od. B. 544. χευάντων, Od. A. 214. χεῦαν. veda, &e. 

6. In the aorist of ἀλεείνω from ἀλέξω, the digamma not only suppresses 
o, ἄλευα, ἄλευαι, ἀλεύασθαι, &c. but it is also lost itself, as in ἀλέασθαι, 11. N. 
436, and so ἀλέασθε, ἀλέαιτο, in other places, which were undoubtedly 
ἀλέρασθαι, d\éFarro. Exactly in the same manner we find εὔκηλος and the 
common ἕκηλος, εὔαδεν instead of ἔαδεν, αὐΐαχος, αὕσταλέος, and the strange 
form αὐέρυσαν, which may be explained ἀξέρυσαν, viz. Ἐέρυσαν with the 
intensive a prefixed. From all this, and the preceding remarks, it 
seems evident that the diphthongs ai, εὖ, arose from the attenuation of 
aF and ἐξ. 

ΧΙ. 


History of the digamma in Homeric criticism. 


1. Bentley was the first who clearly recognised the traces of the di- 
gamma in the Homeric poems, and the necessity of attending to it in 
the treatment of the Homeric text. On the margin of Stephanus’s 
edition of Homer in Poet. principp. Her. he marked the lections of se- 
veral manuscripts, prefixed the digamma to the proper words, and en- 
deavored to alter the adverse passages according to its demands, often 
improving on himself, as he proceeded, and amassing or examining a 


277 


great variety of matter. From these notes he drew up a full and elabo- 
rate treatise, in which he goes through the digammated words in alpha- 
betical order, and overthrows all apparent objections to his doctrine. 
The notes alluded to (called the codex Bentleranus) were sent to Heyne, 
but not the ¢reatise, and thus the dispersed observations, and somewhat 
crude views of the great critic have a known, but the larger work 
remains, still unpublished, in the Library of Trinity College, Cam- 
bridge, where it was shown to me, in manuscript, together with the 
above-mentioned codex, in the year 1815. 

2. Afier the labours of Dawes,1 and of Payne Knight? on the subject 
of the digamma, this letter found in Heyne3 an eminent protector, who, 
after his fashion, gave many useful hints, but wavered in his observa- 
tions, and brought the question to no decision. Both on this account, 
and because, following the example of his predecessors, he was too 
prone to change, or to throw suspicion on every passage that seemed 
to oppose the digamma, and thus to mangle the works of Homer, he 
gave ample grounds for contradiction and even censure. Soon after 
the outbreaking of this literary war Hermann® took the field, dividing 
the truth from error with singular sagacity, and endeavouring with 
great pains to destroy the arguments against the reception of the di- 
gamma into the Homeric poems, but, at the same time, to prescribe 
proper limits to its use in Homeric criticism. The neglect of the di- 
gamma, in solzary instances, he admitted as a proof of the later origin 
of those passages, in which such instances occurred. The doctrine 
immediately acquired fresh partisans in Germany, as, for example, 
Buttmann in his Greek Grammar, and Boeckh.6 Recently, a new op- 
ponent to the digamma has appeared in the person of Spitzner, who, 
however, without combating the other proofs of its existence, rests his 
hostility to the letter on this single cireumstance—that hiatus cannot 
be, by its aid, entirely removed from the poetry of Homer; expellas 
furca, tamen usque recurrit. 


APPENDIX—B. 


OF THE APOSTROPHE. 


No general rule ean be given respecting the use of the Apostrophe 
in the Greek prose writers. The Attic writers used it more than the 
Ionic, and the later Attic more frequently than the old, all of them 
chiefly in the monosyllabic particles δὲ, γὲ, τὲ, in the adverbs ποτε, τότε, 
&c. in ἀλλὰ, αὐτίκα, &c. and always in the prepositions which end with 
a oro; more rarely in other words. The following remarks may be 
of service to the student: 

1. It depends in some measure upon the sense of a passage whether 
the Apostrophe is to be used or not: if the sense require thal any pause, 
however short, should be made after a word ending in a short vowel 


1. In the Misc. Critica. 

2. In his Analytical Essay on the Greek Alphabet, and his edition of 
the Homeric poems. 

3. In his ed. of the Iliad, and, particularly, the three Excwrsus at Tl. 
Γ΄. 384. vol. vii. pp. 708—772. 

4, See the review of his Homer in the Allg. Lit. 1803. p. 285. 

5. In a review of Heyne’s Homer in the Leips. Lit. 1803. July. 

6. See Boeckh on the versification of Pindar, Berlin 1809; and in 
his edition of Pindar, de metris Pindaricis, cap. xvii. 


278 


and preceding another which begins with a vowel, the first vowel 1s 
not dropped, as αὐτίκα, ἔφη, εἴση. 

2. A short vowel is not cut off before another, when such elision would 
injure the harmony of the sentence; nor when a particle is emphatic. 

3. The particle ἄρα is Apostrophised hefore οὐ and οὖν, but not before 
other words. If a particle closely adheres in sense to a preceding word, 
it does ie Beer. suffer A postrophe. 

4. The Apostrophe is very frequent in Demosthenes, whose orations 
were written to be spoken, and a leading feature of whose style is ra- 
pidity. Upon the whole it seems reasonable to say, respecting the prose 
writers, that, within certain limits, they used or neglected the A vostro- 
phe as they Judged it most conducive to harmony. 


*.. APPENDIX—C. 
OF CONTRACTIONS. 


1. GENERAL RULES. 


1. The long vowels ἡ and ὦ absorb all the rest of the-simple vowels. 

2. a absorbs all the vowels following it, except o and w. 

_ 3. ε unites in the diphthong εἰ, or the long vowel n, with all vowels 
following it except o and o. 

4. « and » absorb all vowels following, and are contracted into one 
syllable with a vowel preceding. ε is generally subscribed under a, ε, 
ω, and unites in one syllable with « and o, as κέραϊ, κέρᾳ; ὄρεϊ, ὄρει; dis, 
οἷς. When. makes ἃ diphthong with a vowel, and this is to be con- 
tracted with another vowel, the two other vowels are to be contracted 
according to the preceding rules, and the « is either subscribed when 
from the contraction arises a long a, n, ὦ, as τὔπτεαι, τύπτῃ ; τιμἄοιμι, τιμῴ- 
ut; τιμάει, rive; OF, if this is not the case, it is omitted, as χρυσόειν, χρυσοῦν. 

5. o coalesces with all vowels, preceding or following, in the diph- 
thong ov, or, if an « be under, in οἱ, or the long vowel o. 


2. THE MORE ACCURATE DISTINCTIONS OF THESE GENERAL RULES, 


Aa becomes a, but the accusative plural of vais is ναῦς, not vias: so 
also τὰς γραῦς. 

As becomes a, as γελάετε, γελᾶτε; ἐγέλαε, ἐγέλα, 

As becomes a, as γελάεις, γελῇς ; ἀείδω, ᾷδω. 

Ao, Aov, Aw, become w, as Bodover, βοῶσι; δράω, δρῶ, 

Aor becomes ῳ, as ὁράοι, ὁρῷ. 

An becomes a, as γελάητε, γελᾶτε; but an becomes a. 

Ea becomes ἃ if a vowel or ρ precede, as Πειραιέα, ἸΤειραιᾶ ; dpyvpéa, 
ἀγυρᾶ; but when a consonant precedes, ea becomes ἢ, as ἀληθέα, ἀληθῆ. 
Yet in contracted Nouns of the second declension, ca becomes 4, as 
ὀστέα, ὀστᾶ, ᾿ 

Eat becomes ῃ, as τύπτεαι, τύπτῃ, and eas, εἰς, aS ἀληθέας, ἀληθεῖς. 

Ee becomes εἰ, as ἀληθέες, αληθεῖς ; but η in Nouns, if no consonant fol- 
lows es, as ἀληθέε, ἀληθῆ. 

Eo and Eov, in Attic make ov, as φιλέον, φιλοῦν. In Ionicand Doric εὖ, 
as πλεῦνες for πλέονες : χεΐλευς for yeidsos. 

Eo: becomes οἱ, AS ποιξοι, ποιοῖ, 

Ew becomes a, as Πειραιέως, Πειραιῶς, but only when a vowel precedes; 
thus they do not say βασιλῶς for βασιλέως. In dissyllabic Verbs, how- 
ever, which become monosyllabic by contraction, ew, en, 0, eov, are not 
contracted, but only ce and εει. ; 

I, preceded by another vowel, suffers only the proper contraction, as 


279 


ὄρεϊ, opst; aidéi, αἰδοῖ, In a long and » and a», it is subscribed, as κέραϊ, 
κέρᾳ, 

Oa and Ow become ὠ, as βοάω, βοῶ; χρυσόω, yoved. Οἡ 8150 becomes 
w, yet only in Ionic and Doric. Observe, however, that Oa becomes 
ov in βόας, Bods; μείζονας, μείζους - and also that, in adjectives, the termi- 
nation oa is contracted into a, and on into n. 

Os and Oo become ov, as πτερύεσσα, πτεροῦσσα ; πρύοπτος, προῦπτος - and in 
composition προὔτρεψεν for προέτρεψεν; κακοῦργος for κακόεργος. But observe 
that ἀθρόος, dvritoos, and other words compounded with ξοος, do not fall 
under this rule: and that in words compounded of ὁμοῦ, when v is 
omitted, oc remains unchanged, as ὁμοεθνῆς ; if o follows it is contracted 
into w, as ὁμωρόφιος from ὁμοορόφιος. 

Ox and Oor become οι, as εὖνοι, κακόνοι, for εὔνοοι, κακόνοοι: and δηλοῖς, 
δηλοῖ, for δηλόεις, δηλόει. In words compounded with εἰδης, however, oz. 
remains unchanged, as μονοειδής ; and in the present infinitive, and in 
adjectives in vets, oe: becomes ov, as δηλόειν, δηλοῦν ; πλακόεις, πλακοῦς. 

On becomes οἱ, in the second and third persons present subjunctive 
where n has the subscript 1, as δηλόῃ, δηλοῖ ; otherwise w, as δηλόητον, 
δηλῶτον. 

Υἱ is not contracted if these vowels are in two syllables, as βότρυϊ, 
In those cases where v seems to coalesce with a vowel. following, it may 
be supposed to have taken the power of a consonant like our V. 


3. PECULIAR DIALECT FORMS. 


Frequently, (especially in Attic), a word that ends with a diphthong 
or a vowel, is contracted into one with the following word that begins 
with a vowel or diphthong. If an: be among these vowels, it is sub- 
scribed: but more properly it is only subscribed when it is the last of 
the two contracted vowels. The rulesarethe same as those preceding: 
only a few particular ones occur. 

A with a, as τἄδικα for τὰ ἄδικα, but only when the second 4 is short; 
thus, not τἄθλα but τὰ ἄθλα. 

Ac with a, as κἀπὸ for καὶ ἀπό; κἂν for καὶ dv. (The « rejected, and aa 
contracted.) _ 

A with ¢ as rdpé for ra ἐμά," any : 

Ac with ε, as καγώ for καὶ ἐγώ, κἄτι for καὶ ἔτι. : 

Ac with εἰ, as xara for καὶ εἶτα (ι rejected, crasis of a and ε, contraction 
of a and the latter ει.) 

Ac with ἡ, as yf for καὶ ἡ: Ac with o, as χῶσα for καὶ ὅσα. The x 
arises from « on account of the rough breathing of the following vowel. 

1 with o, as κῷνον for καὶ οἶνον ; yo for καὶ of. : 

O with a, as ὡνὴρ for ὃ ἀνήρ: Oc with a, as ἁνδρες for of ἄνδρες. 

O with ¢, as δύμός for ὃ ἐμός τοὐμόν for ro ἐμόν. 

O with οἱ, as ᾧνος for ὃ οἶνος. 

Or with ε, as μοὐγκώμιον, for μοι ἐγκώμιον : O with t, as θοἰμάτιον for τὸ 
ἱμάτιον. Observe, however, that the o, ov, and w, of the article often 
unite with the simple vowel of the following word, and become a long; 
as ὃ ἕτερος, contr. ἅτερος ; τὸ ἕτερον, contr. θάτερον ; rod ἑτέρου, contr. θατέρου; 
τῷ ἑτέρῳ, contr. θατέρω. (In Doric, ἅτερος was put for the simple ἕτερος :) 
thus also τἀγαθοῦ for rot αγαθοῦ; rdvdods for τοῦ dvdpds; τἀνδρὶ for τῷ ἀυδρὶ, 
&e. 

ἡ ov is written separately, but pronounced as one syllable; also ov; 
-as ἐγὼ od. 

Q with οἱ, as éydda for ἐγὼ οἶδα. 

Q with ¢, as τοὐπιγράμματι for τῷ ἐπιγράμματι. 


” 


280 


APPENDIX—D. 


ACCENTS. 


1. First ῬΕΙΝΟΙ͂ΡΑΙ, Law: Jn the Greek language, only one of the three 
last syllables of a word is capable of receiving the acute accent.—ExP.a- 
naTION. If the accent were to recede beyond the third syllable, the 
whole word would to the hearing be necessarily divided into two or 
more. Hence Εὐὐώνυμος, ᾿Αλεμούσιοςς. Besides, an equilibrium must ex- 
ist between the accented syllable and the unaccented ones which fol- 
low. This equilibrium would be destroyed if more than two were to 
follow the accented syllable, as two only are able to produce it. 

2. Seconp Principan Law. The accent falls either on the syllable 
containing the principal idea of the whole word, or on the one which is 
nearest to the syllable of the principal idea, that the number of syllables in 
the word generally will permit.—Expuanation. The root of a word is 
the principal idea. Thus in γράμμα, the first syllable is the root, and 
of course accented. In compound words, however, the added word 
forms for the accent the principal idea, because it gives to the whole 
its shade, its definiteness, its distinction. Thus, in πρόγραμμα the prin- 
cipal idea is now in πρό, and γράμμα, in reference to the accent, becomes 
subordinate, because the preposition πρό gives to γράμμα its definite sig- 
nification, Again, in γραμμάτιον, the accent is on the antepenult, being 
as near as it can come to the syllable (γραμμ) containing the principal 
idea, without violating the first law. It must be observed, however, 
that in the Greek language, with few exceptions (but in the verb with- 
out exception), the accent can never pass beyond the first compound: 
thus ἔς, modes (firstcompound); not, however, σύμπροες (second com- 
pound), but συμπρύες. The first compound therefore remains as the 
PROS idea for the Greek accent. 

3. Tuirp Paincrpan Law. A syllable long by nature is equivalent to 
two syllables with respect to the time occupied in tts pronunciation ; con- 
sequently, if the final syllable of a word be long by nature, the accent can- 
not stand on the third from the end.—Expuanation. This law necessa- 
rily follows from the nature of the thing itself. In ’Agicropayns the 
accent ought to stand thus, ’Ag:orépavns, because the syllables ᾿Άριστο 
enlarge and define the idea of φανης: but the syllable ys contains two 
short times, and hence, this syllable being reckoned for two, the accent 
in ᾿Αριστόφανης would fall upon the fourth syllable, which isa violation 
of the first law: consequently we must write ᾿Δριστοφάνης. But in the 
Attic and old Ionic declension, wherein other dialects give o instead 
of w, as πόλεως (otherwise eos), the last syllable, though long accord- 
ing to quantity, is considered as short for accentuation; and the 
reason for this lies in the half length of ὦ in such eld forms. And 
again, the syllables terminating with the diphthongs o and a, when 
not closed by a consonant (as ow, atv, ors, ats), are, like the Attic or old 
Ionic w, considered short in accentuation. The reason of this lies in the 
short pronunciation of these diphthongs, even the oldest poets having 
allowed themselves to elide οἱ and a in certain instances. The third 

erson of the optative active, however, in οἱ and a, always obtains as 
ong, being the result of contraction; and the same is the case with 
the adverb οἴκοι (properly οἴκῳ.) 

4, The three principal laws just given are sufficient for ascertaining 
the position of the accent in the oldest periods of the Greek language. 
Thus the /Zolians, whése dialect must be considered as the oldest ot 
the Greek dialects, invariably accented according to these laws. In the 


281 


whole of tneir dialect not a single word is to be found accented upon 
the last syllable, except the dissyllabie prepositions, as παρά, περί, ὑπό. 
But in prepositions this is easily accounted for, because they are con- 
nected as closely as possible with the following word, to which they 
refer. The same old accentuation, conforming to the sense, has been 
retained almost invariably by the remaining dialects of the Greek lan- 
guage, 1. in the oldest parts of speech, the verb: 2. in the oldest nouns, 
the neuters: 3. in proper names, which belong to the oldest nouns; as, 
for example, εὐπειθής is an adjective, but Evrei#ns, a proper name. But 
in other words, these dialects exhibit a remarkable deviation from the 
oldest or Xohic usage, all endeavouring to place the accent on the 
final syllables of words, even when these contain no principal idea ; 
as, ἀγαθός, σοφός. This peculiarity of oxytoning can only be explained 
historically; for, marking the last syllable of a word with the accent, 
when the principal idea is not contained inthis syllable, is in sie 
case an abaridonment of the etymological signification of the word. 
This will be made more clear by a comparison with modern languages. 
Those called the Roman languages, which are derived from the Latin, 
have in their words mostly left the old radical syllable of the Latin 
unchanged, and merely furnished this with terminations, which may 
be considered as the only part belonging to them. Now, it is remark- 
able that the languages spoken of, particularly the French, are accus- 
tomed to throw the accent upon these terminations, their only property 
in the word, because the etymological root, borrowed from the Latin, 
must in its original signification and nature remain entirely unknown 
to them. Thus, the French form from fratérnitas fraternité, from 
conscriptio conscription, with the accent placed upon the last syllable, 
which is their own property in the word. 

6. Now, the later dialects, Doric, Ionic, Attic, bear the same rela- 
tion, in respect of the accentuation of many words, to the oldest dialect, 
the Aolic, as the Roman languages to their parent, the Latin. Hence 
the Attic dialect accents, for example, βουλή, βωμός, σοφός, Where the 
ZEolic had βόλλα, βῶμος, σόφο. That the accentuation upon the fast 
syllable in the later dialects originated in an abandonment of the ety- 
mological meaning of a word, to be explained only by the given rela- 
tion of the later dialects to the A®olic, or of the Roman languages to 
the Latin, is proved above all by the remarkable fact, that the Greeks 
almost invariably accent all words of barbarous (i. e. foreign) termina- 
tions upon the last syllable. Thus’Acpaéy (Herod. 2. 30.), ἐς τὴν ( He- 
rod. 3. 8.), Nni@, ᾿Α βραάμ, Μελχισεδέκ, Μιχαήλ, Δαβίδ,’ Αλιλάτ, Μωῦΐῦθ, Oa- 
μῦζ. Here one cannot but perceive an endeavour to bring the last bar- 
barously terminating syllable as clearly as possible before the ear of the 
hearer, that the word, whose etymology was unknown to the Greeks, 
might appear to them at once as barbarous. 


PARTICULAR REMARKS.1 


The Acule is used on the last syllable, the penultima, or the ante- 
penultima. 


1. Accents were first marked by Aristophanes, a Grammarian of 
Byzantium, who lived about 200 years before the Christian era. He 
probably first reduced them to a practical system, because some marks 
must have been necessary in teaching the language to foreigners, as 
they are used in teaching English. 

For the proper modulation of speech, it is necessary that one syllable 
in every word should be distinguished by a tone, or an elevation of the 


282 
_. The Grave! is used on the last syllable only; but when that syllable 
is the last of a sentence or followed by an enclitic, the acute is used. 


voice. On this syllable the Accent is marked in the Greek language. 
This elevation does not lengthen the time of that syllable; so that Ac- 
cent and Quantity are considered by the best critics as perfectly distinct, 
but by no means inconsistent with each other. That it is possible to 
observe both Accent and Quantity is proved by the practice of the mo- 
dern Greeks, who may be supposed to have retained, in some degree 
the pronunciation of their ancestors. Thus in τυπτομένην they lengthen 
the first and last syllable, and elevate the tone of the penultima. 

In our language the distinction between Accent and Quantity is ob- 
vious. The Accent falls on the antepenultima equally in the words 
kiberty and labrary, yet in the former the tone is elevated, in the latter 
the syllable is also lengthened. The same difference will appear in 
baron and bacon, in lével and léver, in Redding, the name of a place, in 
which these observations are written, and the participle redding. 

The Welsh language affords many examples of the difference be- 
tween Accent and Quantity, as dzolch, thanks. 

It has been thought by many that the French have no Accent: but 
in the natural articulation of words this is impossible. Their syllabic 
emphasis is indeed in general not strongly expressed; but a person 
conversant in their language will discover a distinctive elevation, par- 
ticularly in publie speaking. ‘This is in many cases arbitrary: thus 
the word crwel, in expressing sorrow and affection, will on the French 
stage be pronounced créel: inexpressing indignation and horror, erwél. 
But the general rule is, that in words ending in e mute the Accent is 
on the penult; as formidable, rivage: in other words on the last sylla- 
ble, as hautetr, verti. 

On one of the three last syllables of a word the Accent naturally 

falls. Etence no ancient language, except the Etruscan, carried it far- 
ther back than the antepenultima. The modern Greeks sometimes 
remove it tothe fourth syllable; and the Italiansstill farther. In Eng- 
lish it is likewise carried to the pree-antepenultima, but in that case a 
second Accent appears to be laid on the alternate syllable, as detérmi- 
nalion, unprofildble. In poetry the metre will confirm this remark. 
- That variation existed in the different States of Greece, which is 
now observed in the different parts of Britain. The A®Zolians adopted 
a baryton pronunciation throwing the Accent back, saying ἔγω for ἐγὼ, 
θέος for ϑεύς. In this they were consistently followed by the Latin dia- 
lect. But some words in the latter language changed their Accent: 
thus in the Voc. Valeri, the Accent was anciently on the antepenulti- 
ma, and was afterwards advanced to the penultima. In Englisha con- 
trary effect has been produced: thus accéptable is now dcceptable ; cor- 
riptible, cérruptible; advertisements, advértisements; &¢c. In Welsh 
the Accent is never thrown farther back than the penultima, and is 
rarely placed on the last syllable. In Scotland the Accent is oxyton, 
in imitation of that of France, probably on account of the close con- 
nexion which formerly subsisted between the two countries. 

1. The Grave is said to be the privation of the Acute, and to be un- 
derstood on all syllables on which that isnot placed. ‘The Acute with 
the rising inflection has been, by a musical term, called the Arsis, the 
Grave with the falling inflection, the Thesis. 

But where it is expressed on the last syllable, the Grave has the 

‘force of the Acute marking an oxyton. Indeed no substantial reason 
is given for the use of both Accents. Perhaps it may be said that the 
Grave is used to show that the voice, after the elevation, must fall to 


283 


The Circumflex) is used on the last or the penultima. ' 

The Acute and the Grave are put on long and short syllables; the 
Cirecumflex on syllables long by nature,? and never on the penultima, 
unless the last syllable is short.3 να: 

No word has more than one Accent, unless an Enclitic follows. 

Enclitics+ throw their Accent on the preceding word, as ἄνθρωπός ἐστι, 
σῶμά ἐστι.5 Ὶ 

Ten words are without Accents, called Atonics : 6, ἡ, of, al, εἰ, sis, ἐν, 
ἐξ, (or é,) οὐ (οὐκ or odx,) as.6 


RULES OF ACCENTS. 


Monosyllables, if not contracted, are acuted, as ds, xods, yeip.7 
Monosyllables of the Third Declension accent the last syllable of the 


meet the common, or what Aristotle calls the middle, tone of the next 
word; but that the Acute is preserved at the end of the sentence, where 
the change is necessary; that the interrogative ris always requires am 
elevation of voice; and that an Enclitic, becoming a part of the word, 
generally reduces the Accent to the rules of the Acute. 

In French the Grave Accent,—when it is not used for distinction, as 
G, to, from a, has, and οἷ, where, from ow, or,—makes the syllable long 
and broad, and has the force of the Circumflex: the sound is the same 
in prés and prét, in eacés and forét. 

1. The Circumflez is said to raise and depress the tone on the same syl- 
lable, which must be long, and therefore consist of two short; thus σῶμα 
is equivalent to σόόμα. But this double office of the same letter it is not 
easy to discriminate in speaking. 

2. A syllable long by nature, is that which contains a long vowel or 
a diphthong, as σῶμα, σπουδαῖος. Some few syllables with a doubtful 
vowel are circumflexed, as μᾶλλον πρᾶγμα, πρᾶγος, dios, κῦμα, &c. but they 
are contractions. 

3. In Diphthongs, the Accents and Breathings are put on the last 
vowel, as αὐτοὺς ; except in improper diphthongs, διδης for ἄδης. 

ι 4, An Enclitic tnclines on the preceding word, with which it is join- 
ed and blended. 

5. So in Latin, que, ne,ve. But the Accent, which in vzrwm is plac- 
ed on the first syllable, is brought forward to the second in virimaue. 

We may carry the analogy of Enclitics to English. When we say,™ 
Give me that book, we pronounce me as a part of the word give. For 
the boy 15 tall, we say the boy’s tall ; thus is becomes a perfect Enclitie. 
This is frequent in French, donnez le mot, je me leve, est-ce lui; and 
particularly in parlé-je, where the last syllable of parle must be accent- 
ed before the Enclitic. In Italian and Spanish the Enclitic is joined, 
as dammi, deme, give me. 

6. These may be called Proclitics, as they incline the Accent on the 
following word. Thus in English the Article the is pronounced quickly, 
as if it made part of the following word. In poetry it coalesces with 
it, as Above th’ Aonian mount. When these Atonics are at the end of 
the sentence, or following the word to which they are naturally pre- 
fixed, they recover their accent, as ἔχοντες onépp’ ἀνέβαν φλογὸς od. Pind. 
κακὰν ἔξ, Theocr. θεὸς ds, Hom. When they precede an Enclitic, they 
are accented, as εἴ με. 

7. The following appear to be excepted al, viv, οὖν, ts, δρῦς, μῦς, γραῦς, 
vais, οὖς, πᾶς, παῖς, rio; but many of them are probably contractions; thus 
viv, from νέυν, οὖν from ἔον, πᾶς from πάας, πὰνς OY πάντς. Indeed the cir- 
cumflex always leads to the suspicion of some contraction. 


284 


Genitives and Datives, but the penultima of other Cases, as S. χεὶρ, 

χειρὸς, χειρὶ χεῖρα. D. χεῖρε, χειροῖν. P. χεῖρες, χειρῶν, χερσὶ, χεῖρας,1 
Dissyllables, if the first is long and the last short, circumilex the for- 

mer, as potca;2 in other cases, they acute the former, as μούσῃς, λόγος, 

λόγου. ‘ 

Polysyliables, if the last syllable is short, acute the antepenultima, as 

ἄνθρωπος ; if long, the penultima, as ανθρώπου.3 


Exceptions with the last syllable short: 


1. Participles Perfect Passive, as reruppévos. 

2. Verbals in cos and cov, as γραπτέος, γραπτέον. 

3. The increasing Cases of Oxytons, as λαμπὰς, λαμπάδος ; τυπεὶς, rv- 
πέντος. 

4, Many derivatives, as παιδίον, ἐναντίος. 
᾿ 5. Compounds of βάλλω, Tow, χέω, if not with a Preposition, as &y- 

όλος. 

6. Compounds of τίκτω, κτείνω, τρέφω, With a Noun, if they have an 
Active signification, as πρωτοτόκος, she who produces her first child ; ξιφοκ- 
τόνος, he who kills with a sword; μητροκτόναι, a matricide ; λαοτρύφος, he 
who feeds the people. If they have a Passive signification, they follow 
the general rule, as zpwréroxos, the first born ;4 ξιφόκτονος, he who is killed 
with a sword; pnrpixrovos, he who is killed by his mother ; λαότροφος, he 
who ts fed by the people.6 


1. Except Participles, and ris interrogative, with δῴδων, ὁμώων, θώων, 

κράτων, λάων, παίδων ; πάντοιν, πάντων, πᾶσι ; 'Todwr, φώτων; drow, drwy. 
Εἴπερ, τοίνυν, ὥστε, &e. are considered as two words, the latter of 
which is an Enclitic; they cannot, therefore, be circumflexed. 

Nouns in ἔξ, increasing long, acute the penult, as @dpat, κήρυξ, φοίνιξ ; 
if they increase short, they circumflex it, as αὐλαξ, ὁμῆλιξ, πῖδαξ. 

3. From these rules are to be excepted Ozytons, such as generally 
words in evs, ns, ὦ and ws, whose Gen. ends in os pure, as βασιλεὺς, ddAn- 
Ons, &e. Adjectives in tos, θος, Nos, ρος, oros, AS ἁγαθὸς, καλὸς, ἕο. Par- 
ticiples Perf. 2d Aor. and 2d Fut. Active, and Aorists Passive; Pre- 
positions; and others, which will be learnt by use. 

In Latin Polysyllables, the Accent depends on the penultima. If that 
is long, the Accent is placed upon it, as amicus: if short, upon the an- 
tepenultima, as animus. In Dissyllables the Accent is on the first sy]l- 
lable. Hence may be deduced another proof of the difference between 
Accent and Quantity. In Latin the Accent falls on-the first syllable 
of animus and of t2bz, but that syllable is not lengthened in pronuncia- 
tion. 'The Accent falls on the first syllable in carmina ; but if an En- 
clitic follows, as carmindque, the Accent, which is inadmissible on the 
pre-antepenultima, must be laid on a syllable which cannot be pro- 
nounced long. 

In reading Greek the general practice of this country follows the 
Latin rules of Accent. In words of two, and of three, short syllables, 
the difference of the French and English pronunciation is striking. 
The former makes IJambs and Anapests, the latter Trochees and Dac- 
tyls: the French say fugis, fugimus: the English fugis, fugimus. In 
many instances both are equally faulty: thus we shorten the long is in 
favis, the Plural of favus: they lengthen the short is in ovis, the Geni- 
tive of os. 

4, So zpwroyévos and πρωτόγονος, βουνόμος and βοὔνομος, vavudyos and vai- 


Ha x05. 
é The difference of Accentuation serves also tomark the difference 
of signification, and has on some occasions given precision to the lan- 


7° Compounds of Perfects Middle with nouns and Adjectives, as 


Be Yo οἰκονόμος, παμφάγος. 


any other Compounds retain the Accent, which they had in 
their simple state, as αὐτύόφι, οὐρανόθεν, κατεῖχον, συνῆλθον. So Pr 
tions, preserving their final vowel in composition, as ἀπόδος, ἐπισχες.1 


guage, and even determined the ambiguous meaning ofa law. Of this 
distinction a few instances may be given: 


ἄγων, leading; 
ἄληθες, truly ; 

ἄλλα, other things ; 
ἄπλοος, unnavigable; 
doa, then; 

Bios, life; 

didopev, We give; 
d6xos, Opinion ; 

εἶσι, he goes; 

ἔνι, he is in; 
ἔχθρα, enmity ; 
ζῶον, an animal ; 
θέα, a sight ; 

θέων, running; 

ἴον, a Violet; 

κἄλως, a cable; 
Ados, a Stone; 

λεύκη, a poplar; 
μόνη, alone ; 

μύριοι, ten thousand ; 
νέος, Hew; 

νόμος, a law; 

ὅμως, yets 

πείθω, 1 advise; 
mévnoos, laborious; 
τρόχος, & course* 
ὦμος, Shoulder ; 


ἀγὼν, a contest. 
ἀληθὲς, true. 

ἀλλὰ, but. 

ἁπλόος, simple. 

ἄρα, an interrogation. 
βιὸς, a bow. 

διδόμεν, to give, 
δοκὸς, a beam. 

εἰσὶ, they are. 

ἐνὶ, in. 

ἐχθρὰ, hostile things. 
ζωὸν, living. 

θεὰ, a goddess. 

θεῶν, of gods. 

tov, going. 

καλῶς, well. 

λαὸς, a people. 

λευκὴ, White. 

μονὴ, & Mansion, 
μυρίοι, innumerable. 
νεὸς, a field. 

νομὸς, & pasture. 
ὁμῶς, together. 
πειθὼ, persuasion. 
πονηρὸς, wicked. 
τροχὸς, a Wheel. 
@pds, cruel, 


The list might easily be extended, particularly in marking the dif- 


΄ 


ference between a proper and a common name, as «Ξιάνθος, a river; ξανθὸς, 
yellow; *“Apyos, a man, or a city; ἁργὸς, white, &c. 

In English the same difference may be observed; thus cénduct, »r6- 
duce, Nouns; conduct, produce, Verbs. Job, the name of a man;" 70, a 


common word, &c. 


1. These exceptions have given occasion to some to inveigh against 
the use of Accents, as vague and arbitrary; andtomoretoneglect them 
entirely. An attempt to reduce these apparent inconsistencies to a sys- 
tem may tend to rescue this branch of Greek Grammar from that ob- 


jection. 


The most general cause of these exceptions is abbreviation. Thus 


the original form τυπτέμεναι, on which the Accent is placed regularly, 
was shortened into τυπτέμεν and τυπτέναι, which retain the Accent on 
the same syllable. From τετυφέμεναι was formed τετυφέναι, from τυπέμε- 
ναι τυπέιναι, from πετυφάμενος rervppévos, τ 
Verbals in cov were formed from δέον ; thus γραπτέον was originally 
γράπτειν δέον, necessary to write, whence probably was derived the Latin 
scribendum. Navridos may naturally be formed from ναωτέκελος for ναῦ- 
τηΐκηλος. Ἰαιδίον is abbreviated from παιδάριον, or from παιδίδιον, which 
25 


286 
Exceptions with the last Syllable long. 


> 

The Attic mode of keeping the Accent on the antepenultima in Me- 
νέλεως for Μενέλαος, λέξεως for λέξεος ; or the Ionic genitive, as IInAniddew; 
or the Compounds of γέλως, as φιλόγελως, can scarcely be called excep- 
tions, as the two last syllables were in pronunciation contracted into 
one. 

Acand οἱ final are considered as short in Accentuation, as μοῦσαι, 
ἄνθρωποι.1 Except Optatives, as φιλήσαι,2 τετύφοι; Infinitives of the Per 
fect in all Voices, of the Second Aorist Middle, and of the Present of 
Verbs in μι, as τετυφέναι, τετύφθαι: τετυπέναι ; τυπέσθα ; ἱστάναι.3 

The Genitive Plural of the First Decl. circumflexes the last Syllable, 
as μουσῶν :4 except Adjectives of the Ist Declension, whose Masculine 
is of the 2d, as ἅγιος; ἁγίων, ἁγία, ἁγίων : with ἐτησίων, χλούνων, and χρήσ- 
Των. 

Oxytons of the first and 2d Decl. circumflex the Genitives and Da- 
tives, as 8. τιμὴ, τιμῆς, τιμῇ, τιμὴν, τιμή. Ὁ. τιμὰ, τιμαῖν. P: τιμαὶ, τιμῶν, τιμαῖς, 
τιμὰς, τιμαί.8 

Vocatives Singular in εὖ and οἱ are circumflexed, as βασιλεῦ, αἰδοῖ, 

Pronouns are Oxytons, except οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος, δεῖνα, and those in repos, 
AS jpéreoos.6 

The Imperatives ἐλθὲ, εἰπὲ, εὗρε, ἰδὲ, and λαβὲ, are accented on the last, 
to be distinguished from the 2d. A. Ind. 

The Prepositions placed after their Case throw back their Accent, 
as, θεοῦ ἀπὸ. Except ἀνὰ and διὰ to distinguish them from ἄνα, the Vo- 
cative of ἄναξ: and from Δία, the Accusative of Δεὺς or Ais. 


is formed from παῖς, as αἰγίδιον is from αἴξ. 'Thus νεανίσκος and παιδίσκος 
are probably formed from νεανίᾳ and παιδὶ, with εἴσκω. 

It is natural that the cases of a Noun or Participle and the persons 
of a Tense, should retain the Accent through every inflection; thus 
from λαμπὰς, λαμπάδος, &c. from τυπεὶς, τυπέντος, &c. and from τυπῶ, τυποῦ- 
pev, τυποῦμαι, ὅδε. So φιλέον, the neuter of φιλέων ; 50 also παρθένος, from 
the original word παρθήν. 

The Compounds likewise cannot be said to form an exception, as 
the primitive words are not affected by the junction. On this principle 
many ane anomalies may be explained ; thus ὀλίγος is from λίγος, 
οἵ which λίγα is still extant ; and αἰπόλος from οἰγοπόλος, 

This is a faint outline of the system: but an acute observer of the 
etymology and origin of the language will easily solve the difficulties 
of Accentuation on similar principles. 

1. The Diphthongs a aud oc are considered as short, for they were 
generally pronounced at the end of words like +. Thus ai and oi are 
in Russian pronounced?. This pronunciation seems, in some instance, 
to have affected the quantity, as ἵκωμαῖ φίλην, Hom. ἥβης τε καὶ γήραος, 
Hes. ὑμῖν μὲν θευΐ δοῖεν, &c. But the best critics have suspected the ge- 
nuineness of the readings, and proposed emendations. In the last pas- 
Sage θεοὶ may be read as a monosyllable. 

τς 2. Hence φιλήσαι, 1. Aor. Opt. φιλῆσαι. 1. Aor. Inf. φίλησαι, Imper. 
Middle. 

3. Οἴκοι cannot be thought an exception, asit is put for οἴκῳ, of which 
it is the ancient form. 

4. Because it is a contraction from the original form povedwr. 

5. Μήτηρ and θυγάτηρ, when not syncopated, accent the penult. in 
every case, except the Vocative: a case, which from its nature fre- 
wey throws back the Accent, as ἄνερ, πάτερ, σῶτερ. 

6. Before ye they throw back their accent, as ἔγωγε, ἔμοιγε. 


287 


Oxytons undeclined lose their Accents when the final vowel suffers 
elision, as ἀλλ᾽ ἄγε, παρ᾽ ἐμοῦ. Those that are declined throw an Acute 
on the penult. as πόλλ᾽ ἐπὶ, δείν᾽ ἔπαθον. 

Contractions are circumflexed, if the former syllable to be contract~ 
ed is acuted, as νόος νοῦς; φιλέομεν, φίλοῦμεν : Otherwise they retain the 
acute, as φίλεε φίλει; ἑσταὼς, ἑστώς.1 


ENCLITICS. 


Pronouns pov, pev, pot, με; cov, ceo, σεῦ, cot, τοι, ce; οὗ, of, &, μιν, ode, 
σφιν; owe, σφισι, σφεας ; τις, Tt, Indefinite, in all cases and dialects, as 
TOV, TEV, τῳ. , 

Verbs, εἰμι and φημι in the Pres. Indic., except the 2d pers. sing. 

Adverbs, πη, που, πω, πως, ποθεν, ποτε, except when used interrogatively. 

Conjunctions, ye, τε, κε, κεν, θην, vv, νυν, περ, pa, τοι, and de, after Accu- 
Satives of motion, as otxovde. 

Enclitics throw their Accent on the last syllable of the preceding 
word, if that word is acuted on the antepenult, or circumflexed on the 
penult, as ἤκουσά τινος, ἦλθε pot. 

Enclitics lose their Accent after words circumflexed on the last syl- 
lable, as ἀγαπᾷς pe; and after Oxytons, which then resume the Acute 
Accent, as ἀνήρ rts. 

They preserve their Accent in the beginning of a clause, and when 
they are emphatical, or followed by another Enclitic. 

Enclitic Monosyllables lose their Accent after a word acuted on the 
penultima, as λόγος pou; but Dissyllables retain it, as λόγος éore; else 
the accent would be on the pre-antepenultima.?. 

The Pronouns preserve their accent after Prepositions, and after 
vera, OF 3}, AS διὰ σέ. 

᾿Εστὶ accents its first syllable, if it begins a sentence, is emphatical, 
or follows ἀλλ᾽, εἰ, καὶ, οὐκ, ὡς, OF τοῦτ᾽, aS οὐκ ἔστι, 


APPENDIX—E 


DIALECTS. 
L 


“'The Greek language, like every modern one, was not, in ancient 
times, spoken and written in the same manner in all parts of Greece: 
but almost every place had its peculiarities of dialect,3 both with respect 
to the use of single letters, and of single words, forms of words, inflec- 
tions and expressions. Of these dialects there are four principal ones, 
the folic, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Attic. Originally, however, 
there was but one common language,‘ and this was the Doric; not in- 


1. Except metals, as ἀργύρεος ἀργυροῦς ; with ἀδελφιδεος, ἀδελφιδοῦς, λίνεος 
Awods, πορφύρεος πορφυροῦς, φοινίκεος, φοινικοῦς, 

2. If several Enclitics follow each other, the last only is unaccented, 
as él τίς τινά φησί μοι. 
ji 3. Matthiz’s Greek Grammar, vol. i. § 1. εὐ segg. (Blomfield’s trans- 

ation. 

4, ὌΝ Omnium Grecarum urbium et nationum origo referenda est 
ad Thessaliam, Macedoniam, Epirum, et loca vicina, quoniam qui ea 
loca primis temporibus incolebant, et antea [pacxot vel Πελασγοι diceban- 
tur, primum “EAdnves leguntur nominati fuisse ab Hellene, Deucalionis 
filio, qui, ut Deucalion, in Phthiotide, Thessaliz regione, regnasse tra- 


288 


deed the Doric of later times, but a language spoken by the Dorians, 
from which were derived the AZolic and Ionic varieties, after the 
colonization of the coasts of Asia Minor. It was not till the Greeks 
colonized Asia Minor, that their language began to assume both con- 
sistency and polish. The Ionians were the first who softened its asperi- 
ties, and, by attention to euphony, laid aside, by degrees, the broad- 
ness and harshness which were retained by their AXolian neighbours 
on the one hand, and by the Dorians on the other. The rich soil 
of Ionia, and the harmonious temperature of its climate, combined 
with the more proximate causes of its vicinity to Lydia, and its com- 
mercial prosperity, will account for this change of language. It was 
from the colonies that the mother country first adopted any improve- 
ments in her own dialects.” 


I. 


* 

“Tt seems probable, that all the Greek colonists in Asia Minor spoke 
at first acommon language. One of the most remarkable features in 
the change, which originated with the Ionians, was the gradual disuse 
of the digamma. This letter the Dorians laid aside at a later period ; 
the AXolians, on the contrary, always retained it; whence its appella- 
tion of Holic. The first change which the inhabitants of Attica made, 
was to modify their old Doricto the more elegant dialect of their richer 
and more polished colonists; so that, if we recur to the period of about 
1000 years B. C., we may conclude, that the language of Attica was 
nearly the same as that in which the Iliad wascomposed. Subsequent- 
ly, however, as the people of Attica embarked in a more extended com- 
merce, the form of their dialect was materially altered,and many 
changes were introduced from foreign idioms.” 


ΠῚ, 


“The AOLIC DIALECT prevailed on the northern side of the 
Isthmus of Corinth, (except in Megaris, Attica, and Doris) as well 
as in the AZolic colonies in Asia Minor, and some northern islands of 
the Aigean Sea; and was olreny cultivated by the lyric poets in Les- 
bos, as Alczeus and Sappho: and in Beeotia, by Corinna. It retained 
the most numerous traces of the ancient Greek: hence also the Latin 
coincides more with this than with the other Greek dialects. It is pecu- 
liarly distinguished by retaining the old digamma, called, from this cir- 
cumstance, the Aolic digamma. Alczxus is considered as the model 
of this dialect.” 

IV, 

“The DORIC DIALECT, as being the language of men who were 

most of them origmally mountaineers, was hard, rough, and broad, parti- 


cularly from the frequent use of a for ἡ and; as for instance, ἁ dada, 
τᾶν xopav, for ἡ AnOn, τῶν κόρῶν : and from the use of two consonants where 


ditur; et quoniam ‘EAdis fuit urbs atque regio in Thessalia, cum non- 
dum ulla alia in terrarum orbe nota esset ‘Eds: ita linguam antiquis- 
simam et primitivam Grecorum, que proprie dicebatur Ἑλληνικὴ, fuisse 
Thessalorum sive Macedonum propriam, sed ab initio, si quidem cum 
lingua Grecorum, qualem in libris hodie exstantibus reperimus, impri- 
mis cum Attica comparaveris, valde horridam et incultam, et barbaram 
potius quam Greecam, reliquarum tamen Grecie dialectorum omnium 
fontem et originem statuendam esse, non verisimile modo, sed pene 
tertum est.” Sturzius de Dialecto Macedonica et Alexand. § 3. 


289 


the other Greeks employed the double consonant; as, for instance; of 
for ζ, as μελίσδεται, &c. ‘The Doric tribe was the largest, and the parent 
of the greatest number of colonies. Hence the Doric dialect was spo- 
ken throughout the Peloponnesus, in the Dorica Tetrapolis, in the Doric 
colonies of Magna Grecia and Sicily, and in Doris in Asia Minor, 
It is divided by the Grammarians into the old and new Doric dialects. 
In the old, the Comic writer Epicharmus, and Sophron, author of the 
Mimes, were the principal writers. In the new, whichapproached near- 
er the softness of the lonic, Theocritus is the chief writer. Besides 
these, the first Pythagorean philosophers wrote Doric, fragments of 
whose works are still remaining; for instance, Timzeus, Archytas, (who 
is considered as the standard of thisdialect)and Archimedes. Pindar, 
Stesichorus, Simonides of Ceos, (who probably, however, used the Do- 
ric only when he was writing for Doric employers,)and Bacchylides, 
used, in general, the Doric dialect, but softened it by an approximation 
to the others, and to the common one. Many instances of the dialect 
of the Lacedzeemonians and Megarensians occur in Aristophanes. Be- 
sides these, the Doric dialect is found in decrees and treaties in the his- 
torians and orators, and in inscriptions. This dialect was spoken in 
its greatest purity by the Messenians.” 7 


Vv. 7 ε. Da ὲ f 


“The IONIC DIALECT was the softest of all, on account of the 
frequent meeting of vowels and the deficiency of aspirates. It was spo- 
ken chiefly inthe colonies of Asia Minor, and in the islands of the Archi- 
polege. It was divided into old and new. In the former, Homer and 

esiod wrote, and it was originally very little, if at all, different from 
the ancient Attic. The new arose when the lonians began to mix in 
commerce and send out colonies. The writers in this were Anacreon, 
Herodotus, and Hippocrates.1 The principal residence of the Ionic 
tribe, in the earliest times, was Attica. From this region they sent 
forth their colonies to the shores of Asia Minor. As these colonies be- 
gan earlier than the mother country the march of cultivation and re- 
finement, the terms, Jonia, lonians, and Tonic, were used, by way of 
eminence, to denote their new settlements, themselves, and their dialect, 
and finally were exclusively appropriated tothem. ‘The original Io- 
nians at home were now called Attics, Athenians ; and their country, 
laying aside its primitive name of Ionia, took that of Altica.”2 


VI. 


“The ATTIC DIALECT underwent three changes. The old At- 
tic was scarcely different from the Old Ionic, as Attica was the origi- 
nal country of the Fonians; and hence we find in Homer many forms” 
of words, which were otherwise peculiar to the Atties. In this dialect 


- Ζ iz 


! 
7] Ω 

PI PSEA ἤει een 
Veet a on 


1. “ The student is to attribute to Anacreon only the fragments which 
were collected by ἘΠ, Ursinus, and a few additional ones; and not 
those poems which commonly go under his name, a few only excepted. 
As Anacreon lived more than 100 years before Herodotus, his dialect 
was probably different. "With respect to Herodotus, it is to be observed, 
that he adopted the Ionic for his history, being himself a Dorian; con- 
sequently he is not always consistent in his usages, and perhaps is more 
Tonic than a real Ionian would havebeen. His dialect is certainly dif 
ferent from that of Hippocrates.” Blomfield, Remarks on Matihia’s Gr. 
Gr. p. XXXili. 

2, In the age of Homer the Attics were still called ᾿Ἰάονες. 


290 


Solon wrote his laws. ‘Through the proximity of the original Holic 
and Doric in Beotia and Megaris, the frequent intercourse with the 
Dorians in Peloponnesus, and with other Greeks and foreign nations, 
it was gradually intermixed with words which were not Ionian, and de- 
parted farther from the Ionic in many respects, and particularly in using 
the long a where the Ionians employed the η, after a vowel, or the let- 
ter ῥ; in avoiding the collision of several vowels in two different words, 
by contracting them intoa diphthong, or long vowei; in preferring the 
consonants with an aspirate, whilst the Jonians used the tenwes; &c. 
Thus arose the middle Attic,in which Gorgias of Leontium was the 
first who wrote. The writers in this dialect are, besides the one just 
mentioned, 'Thucydides, the tragedians, Aristophanes, and others. The 
new Attic is dated from Demosthenes and A‘schines, although Plato, 
Xenophon, Aristophanes, Lysias, and Isocrates, have many of its pecu- 
liarities. It differed chiefly from the foregoing, in preferring the softer 
forms; for instance, the 2d Aor. συλλεγεις, ἀπαλλαγείς, instead of the an- 
cient Attic and Ionic, συλλεχθείς, dradday Gers ; the double ῥῥ instead of the 
old pc, which the old Attic had in common with the Ionic, Doric, and 
Z£olic; the double rr instead of the hissing co. They said also, πλεῦ- 
pov, γναφεῦς, for πνεύμων, κναφεῦς and ctv instead of the old giv.” 


VII. 


“ Athens having attained an important political elevation, and exer- 
cising a species of general government over Greece, became, at the 
same time, the centre of literary improvement. Greeks from all the 
tribes went to Athens for their education, and the Attic works became 
models in every department of literature. ‘The consequence was, that 
when Greece, soon after, under the Macedonian monarchy, assumed a po- 
litical unity, the Attic dialect, having taken rank of the others, became 
the language of the court and of literature, in which the prose writers 
of all the tribes, and of whatever region, henceforth almost exclusively 
wrote, The central point of this later Greek literature was established 
under the Ptolemies at Alexandria in Egypt.” : 


Vill, 


“ With the universality of the Attic dialect, began its degeneracy. 
Writers introduced peculiarities of their provincial dialects ; or in place 
of anomalies peculiar to the Athenians, or of phrases that seemed arti- 
ficial, made use of the more regular or natural forms; or instead of a 
simple phrase, which had become more or less obsolete, introduced a 
more popular derivative form, as νήχεσθαι for νεῖν, to swim, and ἀροτριᾷν 
for ἀροῦν, to plough. Against this, however, the Grammarians often 

edantically and unreasonably struggled ; and, in their treatises, placed 
τὸ the side of these offensive or inelegant modernisms the true forms 
from the old Attic writers. Hence it became usual to understand by 
Attic, only that which was found in the ancient classics, and to give to 
the common language of literature, formed in the manner indicated, 
the name of κοινή, ‘the vulgar, or ἑλληνική, ‘ the Greek,’ 1. 6. ‘the vulgar 
Greek.’ This κοινὴ διάλεκτος, after all, however, remained essentially 
Attic, and of course every common Greek grammar assumes the Attic 
dialect as its basis.” 


+ 
----- 


‘1. Buttmann’s Greek Grammar, p. 2. (Everett’s translation.) 


291 


IX. 


“ΤῸ the universality, however, of the Attic dialect, an exception was 
made in poetry. In this department the Attics remained the models 
bead in one branch, the dramatic. For the other sorts of poetry, Homer 
and the other elder Ionic bards, who continued to be read in the schools, 
remained the standard. The Doric dialect, however, even in later days, 
was not excluded from poetry ; on the contrary, it sustained itself in 
some of the subordinate branches of the art, particularly in the pastoral 
and humorous. When, however, the language that prevails in the 
lyrical portions of the drama, that is, in the chorusses and passionate 
speeches, is called Doric, it is to be remembered that the Doricism con- 
sists in little else than the predominance of the long a, particularly in 
the place of n, which was a feature of the ancient language in general, 
and retained itself for its dignity in sublime poetry, while in common 
life it remained in use only among the Dorians.”’ 


Χ.: 


“ 'The Macedonian dialect must be especially regarded among those 
which are, in various degrees, incorporated with the later Greek. The 
Macedonians were allied to the Greeks, and numbered themselves with 
the Dorians. They introduced, as conquerors, the Greek cultivation 
and refinement among the conquered barbarians. Here alsothe Greek 
was spoken and written, not, however, without some peculiarities of 
form which the Grammarians denominated Macedonian. As Egypt, 
and its capital city Alexandria, became the principal seat of the later 
Greek cuiture, these forms were comprehended under the name of the 
Alexandrian dialect. The natives also of these conquered countries be- 
gan to speak the Greek (ἑλληνίξειν), and such an Asiatic Greek was deno- 
minated ἑλληνιστὴς. Hence the style of the writers of this class, with which 
were incorporated many forms not Greek, and many oriential turns of 
expression, was denominated Hellenistic. Itneed scarcely be observed, 
that this dialect is contained in the Jewish and Christian monuments 
of those times, especially in the Septuagint and in the New Testament, 
whence it passed, more or less, into the works of the Fathers. New 
barbarisms of every kind were introduced during the middle ages, when 
Constantinople, the ancient Byzantium, became the seat of the Greek 
empire and centre of literary cultivation. Out of this arose the dialect 
of the Byzantine writers, and finally, the yet living language of the 
modern Greeks.” is. 


ΧΙ 


“ As regards more particularly the Greek of the Scriptures, it must be 
observed, that the language of popular intercourse, in which the various 
dialects of the different Grecian tribes, heretofore separate, were more 
or less mingled together, and in which the Macedonian dialect was pe- 
culiarly prominent, constitutes the basis of the diction employed by the 
Seventy, the writers of the Apocrypha, and those of the New Testament. 
The Egyptian Jews learned the Greek, first of all, by intercourse with 
those who spoke this language, and not from books; for they had, in 
the time of our Saviour, a decided aversion to Greek culture and litera- 
ture. When they appeared as authors, they did not adopt the style of 


1. Patten’s translation of Buttmann’s account of the Greek dialects, 
(appended to Thiersch’s Greek Tables.) Note 12. 
2. Winer’s Grammar of the New Testament, by Stuart and Robinson, 


292 


writing employed by the learned, but made use of the popular dialect, 
which they had been accustomed to speak. The character of this dia- 
lect, however, can be only imperfectly known; as the Septuagint, the 
New Testament, and some of the fathers of the Church, exhibit the only 
monuments of it, and these are not altogether pure. Since, however, 
much which belonged to it was peculiar to the later Greek writings; so 
writers in the κοινὴ διάλεκτος, particularly Polybius, Plutarch, Artemido- 
rus, Appian, &c. and more especially the Byzantine historians, may be 
used as secondary sources. ‘I'hat this later dialect had peculiarities of 
its own, in several provinces, is quite probable; as the ancient Gram- 
marians, who have written upon the Alexandrian dialect, have asserted. 
Accordingly, some find Cilicisms in the writings of St. Paul; though 
this hypothesis is rejected by recent critics as untenable and devoid of 
any firm support. ‘The popular Greek dialect was also intermixed by 
the Jews with many‘idiomatic forms of expression from their native 
tongue. Hence arose a Judaizing Greek dialect, which was in some 
degree unintelligible to the native Greeks, and became an object of 
their contempt.” 


XII. 


As respects the Latin language, which many have regarded in its ori- 
gin as only another dialect of the Greek, it may be remarked that three 
different tongues combine to form it, viz. the Celtic, the AXolic Greek, 
and the Pelasgic.’ The basis of the Latin tongue appears to be the Cel- 
tic.1 The Afolic Greek is supposed to have been introduced by some 
of the wandering remnants of the AXolic tribes? who had fought before 
Troy, and were driven by storms on the coast of Italy when returning 
to their homes; while the Pelasgic came in with that ancient race 
when they iaid the foundation of the Etrurian commonwealth.* What- 
ever the Greek and Latin possess in common with the Sanskrit (Sonskri- 
to) language, appears to have been obtained through the medium of the 
Pelasgi; and it is remarkable that, as this ancient people made a per- 
manent settlement in Italy, so the Latin presents far more traces. than 
the Greek of affinity with the Sanskrit.t 


XII. 


“The opinion that the Greek and Latin owed their origin to the 
Sanskrit, and consequently that the last is of greater antiquity than the 
other two, was never, we believe, questioned till Mr. Stewart broached 
a directly opposite doctrine in his last volume of the philosophy of the 
Human iad. In this he hasbeen supported, with much ingenuity and 
learning, by Professor Dunbar, in his Enquiry into the Structure of 
the Greek and Latin languages.6 In the Appendix to this work, he 
nas endeavoured to establish the derivation of the Sanskrit from the 


1. Oxford Classical Journal, vol. 8. p. 119. seqq. 

2. Mannert’s Geography der Griechen und Roemer, vol. 9. p. 562. 

3. Lempriere’s Classical Dict. articles Hetruria. Italia, Pelasgi; An- 
thon’s edit. 1827. 

4. Schlegel, ueber die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier, p. 6. et seqq. 
Bopp’s Analytical Comparison of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and Teu- 
tonic languages, (Biblical Repertory, vol. 2. p. 165 et 5684.) 

5. Foreign Review, Number 4. p. 502. 

6. An inquiry into the Structure and Affinity of the Greek and Latin 
Languages, &c. by George Dunbar, Ε΄. R. S. E. and Professor of Greek 
in the University of Edinburgh. 


293 


Greek. Mr. Stewart ad α ‘thatthe conquests of Alexander in India, 
and the subsequent establishment of a Greek Colony in Bactria, dif- 
fused among the native inhabitants a knowledge of the Greek language, 
of which the Brahmins availed themselves to invent their sacred dia- 
lect.’ It does not clearly appear, whether the opinion of Mr. Stewart 
and Professor Dunbar is, that this dialect was formed simply by adapt- 
ing Greek terminations to the vernacular tongue, or by forming it en- 
tirely from the Greek. But, take whichever supposition we please, the 
opinion isequally groundless. The object of the Brahmins was to in- 
vent asacred dialect; that 15,8 dialect not understood by the mass of the 
people. But ifthey merely combined Greek with the vernacular tongue, 
so as to make the terminations of the verb, as is the case, the sacred lan- 
gauge would, with very little trouble, be learnt by the people. If, onthe 
other hand, the Brahmins formed the whole of their sacred dialect from 
the Greek, with perhaps some few alterations either in the vocabulary or 
in the grammatical structure, it must have been understood by the Greek 
inhabitants of Bactria ; and, if Mr. Stewart is correct in his opinion, that 
the conquests of Alexander, and the Greek colonists had diffused among 
the native inhabitants a knowledge of the Greek language, the sacred 
dialect must have been equally accessible tothem. Mr. Stewart admits, 
‘that it must be ascertained from internal evidence which of the two 
languages was the primitive and which the derivative; and whether 
the mechanism of the Sanskrit affords any satisfactory evidence of its 
being manufactured by such a deliberate and systematic process as has 
been conjectured.’ 

Merely calling the attention of the reader to the absurdity of suppos- 
ing, that any language ever was or could be formed by such a delibe- 
rate and systematic process, we shall now examine the internal evidence 
adduced by Professor Dunbar, in support of the derivation of the Sans- 
krit from the Greek. The Professor maintains, that the Greek verbs 
of motion and existence form the terminations of every verb in Sanskrit. 
The verbs of motion and existence are undoubtedly very similar in 
those two languages, but which are the original, and which the deriva- 
tive, is not proved. His strongest evidence, however, is this: the Sans- 
krit augment, significative of past time, is borrowed from a Greek word, 
which, however, was not employed as an augment in the earlier periods 
of the Greek language; therefore the Greek could not have been deriv- 
ed from the Sanskrit, but the latter must have been derived from the 
Greek, at a time when the augment was used. ‘The augment,’ he 
says, was ‘just coming into use in Homer’s time, as he seldom uses it, 
unless when compelled by the nature of the verse.’ He gives several 
examples of the separate use of the essential verb, (from which the aug- 
ment was afterwards formed,) even when the language was carried to 
its highest state of perfection. This is a plausible mode of reasoning, but, 
in our opinion, not satisfactory, nor decisive of the question. The es- 
sential verbs are the same both in Sanskrit and Greek: at the remote 
pe when the latter was derived from the former, it is highly proba- 

le that the primitive mode of using them separately was universal in 
the Sanskrit. As the Greek became polished and refined, the grammati- 
cal structure was changed; the essential verbs were shortened and con- 
verted into augments. The Brahmins, equally attentive to the im- 
provement of the grammatical structure of their language, would soon 
perceive that the change of these verbs into augments would tend to 
that improvement. In fact, we know, that in all languages there is a 
tendency to incorporate words, and to effect this incorporation by the same 
processes as were adopted by the Greeks. In our own language, the 
word loved is, in fact, formed by the annexation of the essential verb, 


294 


did, to the radicalterm. In this manner the past tense is formed in the 
Anglo-Saxon and our oldest English writers. The employment of the 
essential verb did, separately, unmutilated, and placed before the radi- 
cal term, does not, we believe, occur in Wickliffe: it was afterwards 
introduced, but is now nearly laid aside again, except where particular 
emphasis is meant to be given. From these considerations we cannot 
lay much stress on Professor Dunbar’s argument, grounded on the em- 
ployment of the augment in the Sanskrit, and its unfrequent use in the 
Greek of Homer’s time. 

But there are other proofs against the doctrine broached by Mr. Stew- 
art, and adopted by Professor Dunbar, that the Sanskrit is a compara- 
tively modern language, manufactured by the Brahmins out of the 
Greek, after the time of Alexander, for their peculiaruse. Mr. Cole- 
brook, in his Essay on the Sanskrit and Prakrit Languages, maintains 
that there is no good reason for doubting that the Sanskrit was once uni- 
versally spoken in India: and, he adds, when it was the language of 
Indian courts, it was cultivated by all persons who devoted themselves 
to the liberalarts; in short, by the first three tribes, and by many class- 
es included in the fourth. He farther states, that nine-tenths of the 
Hindoo, which, with a mixture of Persic, forms the modern Hindos- 
tanee, may be traced back to the parent Sanskrit; that there are few 
words in the Bengalee which are not evidently of the same origin; and 
that all the principal languages of India contain much pure as well 
as corrupt Sanskrit. With respect to the Sanskrit itself, ‘It evidently 
derives its origin, and some steps of its progress may even now be trac- 
ed, from a primeval tongue, which was gradually refined in various 
climates, and became Sanskrit in India, Pahlaviin Persia, and Greek 
on the shores of the Mediterranean.’ 

To these overwhelming objections to the opinion of Mr. Stewart and 
Professor Dunbar, we shall merely add, that, in the time of Alexander, 
the five rivers of the Panjeab, which fall into the Indus, bore Sanskrit 
names, the same as they do at present. Taking into consideration the 
relation between the vowels ὦ and ~ in Oriental orthography, and the 
connection of the consonants B and V with the aspirate, the Hydasper 
of Nearchus, Alexander’s admiral, isthe Bedusta or Vetasta of the Sans- 
krit. The name given it by Ptolemy, Bidaspes, serves, as Dr. Vincent 
justly remarks, on this occasion, as wel! as un all others, ‘as the point 
of connection between the Macedonian orthography and the Sanskrit.’ 
For the steps by which the names given to the other four rivers, by Near- 
chus, may be traced through the names given them by Ptolemy, to these 
Sanskrit appellations, we must refer the readers to the first volume of 
Dr. Vincent’s learned and ingenious work on the Commerce and Navi- 
gation of the Ancients, pp. 94, 98, 101, 104, 108. See also 146-8, 163, 
and vol, ii. pp. 388, 395, 411, 432, 494, 500, 669. 


295 


GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE DIALECTS. 


Tue Articl 


loves contractions, as φιλῶ for φιλέω, ἤδειν for εἴδειν. 

Its favourite letter is w, which it uses for o. 

It changes long into short, and short into long syllables, as λεὼς for dads. 

In Nouns, it changes ο, οι, and ov of the Second Declension into ὦ ; 
as N. V. λεὼς, G. λεῳ, Ὁ. λεῷ, A. λεὼν, &e. 

It changes es into ns, as ἱππῆς for ἱππεῖς. 

It makes the Vocative like the Nominative, as ὦ πάτερ, ὦ φίλος, Soph. 

In some Nouns it makes the Accusative in ὦ, instead of wv, wa, or wva; 
as, λαγὼ, Μίνω, Τ]οσειδῶ, for λαγῶν, Μίνωα, Tocerddva.2 

It changes the Gen. eos into ews, aS βασιλέως for βασιλέος.8 


1. A marked difference exists between the Old and the New Attic. 
The former used short and simple forms: the latter softened, and, in 
some cases, lengthened, the word. The former used the short words 
δεῖν, ἀλεῖν, θέρεσθαι, νεῖν, κνεῖν : for these the latter substituted δεσμεύειν, 
ἀλήθειν, θερμαίνεσθαι, νήθειν, κνήθειν. The Old neglected :, which the New 
added or subscribed; the former wrote κάω, κλάω, Aworos, modpos: the 
latter, καίω, κλαίω, λώϊστος, πρώιμος. 

Other changes marked the distinction. The New Attic in some cases 
avoided the sound of c; hence it substituted ἄῤῥην, θάῤῥος, μυῤῥίνη, θάλαττα, 
πράττω, φυλάττω, for the ἄρσην, θάρσος, μυρσίνη, θάλασσα, πράσσω, φυλάσσω of 
the Old Attic. 

In the Future of verbs the Old used the contraction form ἀλῶ, καλῶ, 
dG, ἀναβιβῶμαι; the New Attic resumed oc, and made them ἀλέσω, καλέσω, 
ολεσω, ἀναβιβάσυμαι. After the adoption of this Future, which became the 
general form in the common dialect of Greece, the Attics still pre- 
served the other form, which is now distinguished by the name of the 
Second Future. 

It may be questioned whether the « and y, the π and ¢, were not added 
to the Perfect, which was originally formed in the Old Attic and Ionic 
by the change of into a, as we find traces in ἔσταα, μέμαα, and in the 
Aorists ceva, ἔχεα, ἤλευα. It is indeed probable, that in the simplest 
forms of the language those tenses were similar; the principle of va- 
riety and of precision introduced these changes and additions, which 
adorned the luxuriant language of ancient Greece. That of modern 
Greece has returned to the original simplicity; it has only one Past 
tense; as γράφω, ἔγραψα ; πλέκω, ἔπλεξα : γνωρίζω, ἐγνώρισα ; Wadrdro, ἔψαλα. 

Even the in underwent tome ἘΣ, The Old Irs 
said, ὁμοῖος, τροπαῖον ; the New, ὅμοιος, τρόπαιον. 

2. Soin Latin, Awt Atho, Aut Rhodopen, Virg. 

3. This Genitive exemplifies the difference of the dialects. The 
Common dialect is βασιλίος, the Altic βασιλέως, the Ionic βασιλῆος, the 
Doric and Zolic βασίλευς. 

It is probable that the Nom. vs was originally rs, which was declined 
into ¢Fos, eFi, eFa, Sc. 

The Digamma will explain the principle of many formations, Thus, 
TIn\ntddao, in the AXolic form, was Πηληρεάδαξο : hence a in the penulti- 
ma is lengthened; hence ἴοο,ε is changed into the Ionic 7. The Geni- 
tive of Nouns in os was probably oro, which was shortened into oF: the 
Poets changed the Digamma into :, and made the termination 010. But 
the Digamma was, by the greater part of Greece changed into v,'in the 
formation of Cases. Thus the Gen. of od and of o was σέρο and éPo, ab- 


296 


: * three Verbs, it changes the Augment ¢ into ἡ, in ἠθουλόμην, ἠδυνάμην, 
μελλον. ' 

it changes εἰ into n, as ἤδειν for εἴδειν. | 

It adds a syllable to the Temporal Augment, as ὁράω, idpaov for 
ὥραον : εἴκω, εοικα for olka. 

It adds θα to the Second Person in σ, as ἦσθα for ἧς, οἴδασθα, by Syncope, 
οἶσθα, for οἶδας. 

It changes λε and με of the Perf. into εἰ, as εἴληφα for λέληφα, εἴμαρμαι 
for pépappat, εἴλεγμαι for λέλεγμαι. 

It drops the Reduplication in Verbs beginning with two consonants, 
as ἐβλάστηκα for βεδλάστηκα. 

It repeats the two first letters of the Present before the Augment of 
Verbs beginning with a, ε; 0; a8 d\éw, ὠλεκα, ὁλώλεκα. 

it forms the Ist Fut. and Perfect of Verbs in w, as from ew; thus θέλω, 
θελήσω, τεθέληκα, as if from θελέω. 

It dropso in the Ist Future, as νομιῷ circumflexed for νομίσω, κορέει for 
KOOECEL, | 

Tt changes ε in the penultima of the Perf. Act. into o, as ἔστροφα from 
στρέφω, εἰλοχα for λέλεχα. 

It forms the Pluperfect in x, ns, n or εἰν. 

It changes erwoay and arwoav in the 3d Person Plural Imperative into 
ὄντων and αντων, as τυπτόντων for τυπτέτωσαν ; τυψάντων for τυψάτωσαν ; and 
σθωσαν into σθων as τυπτέσθων, τυπτέσθωσαν. 

It makes the Optative of Contracts in nv, as φιλοίην for φιλοῖμι.2 

Tt changes μ before pa: in the Perfect Passive of the 4th Conjugation 
into o, as πέφασμαι for πέφαμμαι.3 


Tue Ionic 


loves a concourse of vowels, as τύπτεαι for τύπτῃ, σεληναίη for σελήνη. 

Its favourite letter is n, which it uses for a and «. 

It puts soft for aspirate, and aspirate for soft, Mutes; as, ἐνθαῦτα for 
ἐνταῦθα, κιθὼν for χιτών. ἰ 

It prefixes and inserts ε, as ἐὼν for Sy, ποιητέων for ποιητῶν. 

It inserts 1, as feta for ῥέα; and adds instead of subcribing it, as Θρήϊ- 
«es for Θρᾷκες, pie for ῥᾷδιος. 

In Nouns of the First Declension, it changes the Genitive ov into 
ew, aS ποιητέω for ποιητοῦ. 

It changes the Dative Plural into ys and got, as δεινῆς κεφαλῇσι, Hes, 
for δειναῖς, κεφαλαῖς. 

In the Second it adds εἴο the Dative Plural, as τοῖσι ἔργοισι, Her. for 
rots ἔργοις, neglecting ν before a vowel in prose.4 

In the third it changes « into n, as βασιλῆος for βασιλέος. 
It changes the Accusative of Contracts in ὦ and ws into avy, as αἰδοῦν 
for αἰδόα. 

In Verbs it removes the Augment, as βῆ for ἔβη. 

It prefixes an unusual Reduplication, as κέκαμον for ἔκαμον, λελαθέσθω 
for λαθέσθω. 


breviated into oir and ἔξ, afterwards changed into σεῦ and εὖ, or oot and 
οὖ, but by the Jonians into σεῖο and eto. 

1. These. Verbs have no other form, βούλομαι, ἔῤῥω, θέλω, καθεύδω, μέλ- 
Ao, μέλει, οἴομαι. 

ο᾽ The Third Person Plural is always regular, φιλοῖεν, Verbs in aw 
make anv. 

3. In the construction of sentences, it uses a license, probably occasion- 
ed by the love of liberty which characterised the Athenians. 

4. The addition of ει is frequent in poetry. 


297 


It terminates the Imperfect and Aorists in cxoy, as τύπτεσκον, τύνψασκον, 
for ἔτυπτον, ἔτυψα. 

It adds σι to the Third Person Subjunctive, as τύπτησι for τύπτῃ. 

It changes εἰν; εἰς, εἰ of the Pluperfect into «a, eas, es, ὅῦο. as ἐτετύφεα, as, 


It forms the Third Person sre of the Passive in dra: and dro, as 
τυπτέαται for τύπτονται, ἐτιθέατο for ἐτίθεντο, ἕατο for fro. 
It resumes in the Perfect the consonant of the Active, as τετύφαται for 
τετυμμένοι εἰσί. 
It changes σ into the consonant of the Second Aorist, as πεφράδαται for 
πεφρασμένοι εἰσί. 
Tue Doric 


loves a broad pronunciation; its favourite letter is a, which it uses for 
& ἢ, 9, ®, and ov. ‘ 

It changes ¢ into od, as ὄσδω for ὄζω.3 

In Nouns of the First Declension, it changes ov, of the Genitive into 
a, as dida for ἀΐδου. 

In the Second Declension it changes ov of the Genitive into a, as 0a 
for θεοῦ: and ovs of the Accusative Plural into os and ws, as θεὸς for θεοὺς, 
ἀνθρώπως for ἀνθρώπους. 

In the Third Declension it changes eos of the Genitive into evs, as 
χείλευς for χείλεος. 

In Verbs, it forms the 2d and 3d Persons Singular of the Present in 
és and ε, as rinres, romre, for τύὔπτεις, τὕπτει. 

It changes oyev of the Ist, and ove: of the 3d Person Plural into ones and 
ovrt, AS λέγομες, λέγοντι, for λέγομεν, λέγουσι. 

It forms the Infinitive in μὲν and μεναι, as τυπτέμεν and τυπτέμεναι for τύπ- 
τειν ὦ ; 

It forms the Feminine of Participles in oca, evoa, and wea, as τύπτοισα, 
rérrevoa, and τύὔύπτωσα, for τύπτουσα. Ss 

It forms the first Aorist Participle in as, atca, aw, aS réxp-ats, αἶσα, av, 
for réw-as, aca, αν. 

In the Passive it forms the 1st Person Dual in ἐσθον, and Plural in 
εσθα, aS τυπτόμ-εσθον, ecOa, for τυπτόμ-εθον, εθα.8 

It changes ov of the 2d Person into ev, as τύπτευ for réxrov. 

In the Middle, it circumflexes the First Future, as τυψοῦμαι for τύψυμαι. 

It forms the lst Person Sing. of the Future in evya, and the 3d Plu- 
ral in evyrat, as τυψεῦμαι, τυψεῦνται. 


Tue Ao.Ic 
changes the Aspirate into the Soft breathing, as ἡμέρα for jpépa.* 


1. Z is composed of ds; the Doric only reverses the order of those 
letters. 

2. It has been thought that τυπτέμεναι was the original form, which 
was shortened by Apocope into τυπτέμεν ; the next abbreviation was rér- 
rsev, Which was contracted into τύπτειν. The Doric shortened it still 
more into τύὔύπτεν. 

3. Some forms are Pepmcnaly used by more than one dialect. 
Thus those in ec#ov and ecOa are Attic as well as Doric. 

4. On the same principle, the Latin dialect had originally no aspirate ; 
hence fama from φήμη, fuga from φύγη, cano from yaivw, fallo from σφάλ- 
Aw, vespa from σφήξ. It used edus for hedus, ircus for hircus. After- 
wards the aspiration was imitated from the Greek; and, in consequence 
of the propensity to extremes natural to mankind, the Latins carried 

26 


298 


It draws back the Accent, as ?yw for ἐγὼ, φῆμι, for φημὶ, σύνοιδα, for συν- 
oda, ἄγαθος for ἀγαθὸς; and circumflexes acuted monosyllables, as Ζεὺς 
for Ζεύς. bes J 

It puts θα for θεν, as ὄπισθα for ὄπισθεν, 

It resolves Diphthongs, as πάϊς for παῖς. 
sik Nowns of the First Declension it changes ov into ao, as didao for 
atdov, . 

It changes wy of the Genitive Plural into éwy, and as of the Accusa- 
tive into ais, as μουσάων, μούσαις, for μουσῶν, μούσας. . 

i In the 2d Declension it drops the « subscript in the Dative, as κόσμω 
OF κόσμῳ. 

In the 3d Declension it changes the Accusative of Contracts in w 
and ws into wy, as αἰδῶν for aidéa; and the Genitive ovs into ws. 

It forms the 3d Person Plural of the Imperfect and Aorists of the In- 
dicative and Optative in σαν, as ἐτύπτοσαν for ἔττυπτον.1 

It changes the Infinitive in ἂν and into as and as, as yédats for 
γέλαν, χρυσοῖς for χρυσοῦν. ΤΗΝ 

It changes εἰν of the Infinitive into gv, as τύπτην for τύπτειν, 

In the passive it changes μεθα into μεθε and μεθεν, aS τυπτόμεθε aNd τυπ- 
τόμεθεν for τυπτόμεθα. ; 


THE Poets 


have several peculiarities of inflection. 

They use all the dialects; but not indiscriminately, as will be seen 
in the pera of the best models in each species of poetry. In general 
they adopt the most ancient forms, as remote from the common dialect.2 

They lengthen short syllables, by doubling the consonants, as ἔσσεται 
for ἔσεται, ἔδδεισε for ἔδεισε; by changing a short vowel intoa diphthong, 
as εἰν for ἐν, μοῦνος for μόνος, εἰλήλουθμεν for ἐληλύθαμεν ; or by v final, as éc- 
τὶν φίλον, 

They add syllables, as φόως for φῶς, ὁράᾳν for ὁρᾶν, σαωσέμεναι for σώσειν. 

They drop short vowels in pronunciation, to diminish the number 
of syllables, as dudw for δαμάω, ἐγεντο for ἐγένετο. 

They drop syllables, as ἄλφι for ἄλφιτον, κρῖ for κρίμνον, λίπα for λίπαρον ; 
δύνα for δύνασαι, σάω for ἐσάωσε, &c. 

In Nouns they form the Gen. and Dat. in φι; as κεφαλῆφι from κεφαλὴ, 
στρατόφι from στρατὸς, ὄχεσφι from ὄχος, ναῦφι for ναῦσι. So αὐτόφι for αὖ- 
τοῖς. : 

In the 2d Declension they change the Genitive ov into o10, as πολέμοιο 
κακοῖο for πολέμου κακοῦ, Hom.3 and ow in the Dual into oriv, as Ad yorty for 
λόγοιν. 

ὦ the 34 Declension, they form the Dative Plural by adding: or σι to 
the Nominative Plural, as παῖς, παῖδες, raideot OF παίδεσσι. 

In Neuters they change a into eo: or ἐσσι, as βήματα, βημάτεσσι. 

They form several Verbs of a peculiar termination, in 90, cyw, σθω, 
σκω, σπω, σχω, Sw, ELW, ELYW, NW, LAW, OVW, and ww, as βεβρώθω, ἵξω, &c. 
So ὄρσω from dow, &c. 

They have Particles peculiar to themselves, as ἅμαι, δῆθα, Exnrt, ἥμος, 
μέσφα͵ νέρθε, bya, κε, pa, &C. 


the use of aspirates to a ridiculous excess, some pronouncing prechones 
for pracones, chenturiones for centuwriones, chommoda for commoda. | 

1. This is chiefly used, inthe Alexandrian dialect, by the Septuagint, 

2. Thus they frequently omit the Augment, which was not used in 
the earliest Ionic and Attic forms. 

3. The Tragic poets adopt this change in the choruses only, 


S.N. 


299 


DIALECTS OF THE PRONOUNS. 1 


Tonic. 


ἐμεῖο, ἐμέο, 
ἐμέοθεν 


Tonic. 


σεῖο, σέο, 
σέοθεν 


Ἐγὼ. 
Doric. 
ἐγὼν, ἐγώνῃ, ἐγώ- 
γα, ἐγώνγα 
ἐμεῦ 
ἐμὶν 
dpe, ἄμμε 
ἅμες, ἄμμες 


ἁμῶν, ἁμέων ᾿ 
ἀμὶν, ἁμῖν 


ἁμᾶς, ἁμὲ, ἄμ- 
us 
Σὺ, 
Doric. 


τὺ, τύνη, Toya 
τεῦ, τεῦς, τεοῦς 


τοὶ, τὶν τέϊν 


τὲ, τὸ 


a 
Οὐ, 

Tonic. Doric. 
Rg Ti ~ Σ 
εἶἷο, οἷο, ἐοῖο, εὖ 

£0, ἔοθεν 

odée σφῶε, σφὼ 

σφέες σφὲς 
σφέων 
σφὶν, opt SET 
σφέας σφὲ, ψὲ 


Z£olic. Poetic. 
ἔγω, ἔγων, | "ya 
. ἰὼ, ἴωνγα 1" 
B. ἐμοῦς - ἐμέθεν 
épot, B. ἐμὺ | 
ἄμμε 
| ἄμμες 
ἄμμων, Gppéwv) ἡμείων 
ἄμμι, ἄμμιν | ἦμιν 
ἀμμέσιν 
ἄμμας, dupéas | ἡμεῖσα 
ZEolic. Poetic. 
Toon ΕΛ ταν 
σεῦ σέθεν σεΐοθεν 
τίνη pa AS 
τιν, Tet — 
fEolic.  {Poetic. 
ev, γέθεν εἴοθεν 
ἑοῖ 
μὶν, νὶν 1 ἕε, ot 
σφεῖες 
σφείων 
ἄσφι φὶν 
δφεῖας 


ogis, ἄσφε 


1. Mivand νὶν are of all Genders and Numbers. 
In Celtic, myn, our, your, their, is of all Genders and Numbers, 


ἐ ἃ 300 


i 3 ' ΐ 
«οὖ » DIALECTS OF THE VERB Eig. 


InpicaTive.— Present. 

Sing. Dual. -Plur. 
A. ——— in —, ---- - eis 
Ἰ. ἔεις --- ἔασι 
D. ἐμμὶ ἐντὶ —— [εμὲς ------ ἐντὶ 
ZB. Hype --π πον ἔντι, εὖντε 
Ῥ, — ge, ἐσσὶ --------ὶ —— liner, εἶμεν ἐτε ἔασσι 

ω Imperfect. 

Sing. Dual. Plur. 
A. ἢ, ἦσθα pic eae apis lady leases” yl asad pen 
I. ἔα, dja, des, ἔεις — | —— ——- | —— are 


ἔην, εἴην, hes, gas, 
fov, Hov, ἔησθα 


ἔσκον 
D. — ἧς ----ἔ --- | wes -- --- 
FE ησθα, ἔστον meena 
P. fev; ἔην, iisv| ἔτον, ἔστην, | ἔμεν ἔσαν, ἔσσαν, 
ἧστον͵ ἤστην, ᾿ ἔσκον 
Pluperfect 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 
L—— — --Ἠ -- στο ἔατο, εἴατο 
Future 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 
A, — ἔσει ee --- -- —_— — 
xX, ἔσεαι, ἔσσεαι -- - afte: “carla 
D. ἐσοῦμαι, ἐσῇ ἐσεῖται --- — — ἐσοῦνται 
ἔσευμαι, ἐσσῇ ἐσσεῖται -- -- 
Ῥ, ἔσσομαι, ἑσσῃ ἔσσεται — pe μόν «ate 
IMPERATIVE.— Present. 
Sing. ‘Dual. Plur. 
A. ---ὄὦ..«.-.---ς--- -- -- —— ἔστων 
Ῥ. ----- ἐσσο -- --- — τ ἐόντων 
OptaTIVE.— Present. 
Sing. Dual. Plur. 
I. ἔοιμι, Sous, ἔοι | —_—— | εἶμεν --- τα εἶεν, 
Supsuncrive.— Present. 
Sing. Dual. Plur: 
L. Fa, ste, ἕῃς, eins, ἔῃ, εἴη, -- -- ἕωμεν, εἴόμεν, —— ἔωσε 
σι, ἔησι, --- — εἴωμεν, —— ἔησι 
εἴησι pes ἀῶ ies 


301 
ΓΝΕΊΝΙΤΙΥΕ.--- Present. 
Ι. ἔμεν, εἶμεν 
D. Ficiet, εἴμεναι, ἦμεν, tyes, elpes 
ZB, ἔμμεναι 
ἘΣ ἔμμεν 


Future. 
P. ἔσσεσθαι, 


ParTIcIpLEs.— Present, 
[. ἐὼν ἐοῦσα ἐὸν 
D. εὖσα, ἐοῖσα, acca) 
ZK. εἰς εἶσα, ἔασα εν 
Future. 


P. écodupevos, 4 


1, This Verb will appear less irregular, if it is observed that it forms 
its Tenses in every dialect from ἔω, éyi, ἐεμὶ or εἰμὶ, and ἐσομὶ. From fw 
are formed és; ἔει contracted into εἷς ; εἴ; and from its Future ἔσω is 
formed its Middle ἔσομαι. From εμὶ and ἐσεμὶ are formed éré, ἐσετὶ, or ἐστὶ, 
ὅσο. From εἰμὶ we havescic:,&c. Thus the Tenses of the Verb sum, are 


formed from sum, fuo, forem, ἔω and εἰμὶ. 


THE END. 


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